1. When the same word in sound, but not in sense, is repeated, it is called antanaclasis. This figure sometimes carries a poignancy in it; and, when it appears natural and easy, discovers a ready turn of thought. As when a son, to clear himself of suspicion, assured his father, He did not wait for his death; his father replied, But I desire you would wait for it. Here the word wait is taken in two different senses. And our Saviour uses this figure, when he says to one of his disciples, who desired to go and bury his father, Follow me, and let the dead bury their dead. Where dead in the one place denotes a natural death, and in the other a moral or spi

ritual death.

2. Sometimes the name of some person or thing is repeated, to denote some particular character or property; and then it is called ploce. Thus Cicero says, Young Cato wants experience, but yet he is Cato; meaning he had the steady temper of the family.

3. When a word is repeated with vehemence in the same sense, it is called epizeuxis. This figure shows the earnestness of the speaker, and his great anxiety about what he says; and therefore has a natural tendency to excite attention. It is suited to express anger, surprise, sorrow, and several other passions. As when Cicero would express his indignation against Anthony, for having been the chief instrument in bringing on the civil war, he says to him: You, you Anthony, pushed Cæsar upon the civil war. Or when our Saviour would express his great concern for the wickedness of the Jews, he exclaims, O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, who killest the prophets! 4. Climar is a beautiful kind of repetition, when the word, which ends the first member of a period begins the second, and so through each member, till the whole is finished. There is a great deal of strength as well as beauty in this figure, where the several steps rise naturally, and are closely connected. As in this example :There is no enjoyment of property without government, no government without a magistrate, no magistrate without obedience, and no obedience where every one acts as he pleases. But, as Quintilian observes, this figure is apt to look too much like art; for which reason he advises not to use it often.

:

5. When several sentences, or members of a sentence, begin with the same word, it is called anaphora. This is a lively and elegant figure, and serves very much to engage attention: for, by the frequent return of the same word, the mind of the hearer is held in an agreeable suspense, till the whole is finished. 'You do nothing,' says Cicero to Catiline, you attempt nothing, you think nothing, but what I not only hear, but also see and plainly perceive.' It is frequently used by way of question; which renders it not only beautiful, but strong and nervous. As at the beginning of the same speech: 'Does neither the night-guard of the palace, nor the city-watch, nor the people's fear, nor the agreement of all good men, nor the meeting of the senate in this fortified place, nor the countenances and looks of this society, at all move you?'

6. Epistrophe is contrary to the former, and makes the repetition at the end of each member

or sentence. As thus:-Since concord was lost, friendship was lost, fidelity was lost, liberty was lost; all was lost.

7. Symploce takes in both these last figures. As in that of Cicero:- You would pardon and acquit him whom the senate have condemned, whom the people of Rome have condemned, whom all mankind have condemned.' Here the several members both begin and end with the same word.

8. When a sentence concludes with the word with which it began, it is called epanalepis. As in that expression of Plautus:-'Virtue contains all things; he wants no good thing who has virtue.' This figure adds force to an expression, when the principal thing designed to be conveyed is thus repeated, by leaving it last upon the mind. And it heightens the beauty, when the sentence has an agreeable turn arising from two opposite parts.

9. When the next sentence begins with the same word with which the first concluded, it is termed anadiplosis. As in the following instance: Let us think no price too great for truth; truth cannot be bought too dear. This figure generally suits best with solemn discourses.

10. Epanodos is the inversion of a sentence, or repeating it backwards, so that it takes in the two last figures; for it both begins and ends with the same word, and the same word is likewise repeated in the middle. It serves to illustrate and enforce the sense, by setting it in two opposite views. As in that expression of the prophet: Wo unto them who call good evil, and evil good; who put darkness for light, and light for darkness !' &c.

II. Those figures which consist in a repetition of words of a like sound or signification, or both, are four: paronomasia, homoioptoton, synonymia, and derivatio; the two first of which respect words that are similar in sound only, the third in sense, and the last in both.

i. When two words very near in sound, but different in sense, respect each other in the same sentence, it is called paronomasia. As when we say, After a feast comes a fast; and, A friend in need is a friend indeed. We usually call it a pun, which, when new, and appositely used, passes for wit, and serves to enliven conversation. Nor is it wholly to be excluded from grave and serious discourses; for a witty jest has sometimes had a better effect than a solid argument, and prevailed with those who could not be moved by close reasoning. And therefore Cicero and the best speakers have sometimes recourse to it.

ii. When the several parts of a sentence end with the same case, or tense of a like sound, this is the figure named homoioptoton. As thus :— No marvel though wisdom complain that she is either wilfully despised, or carelessly neglected; either openly scorned, or secretly abhorred. This figure is esteemed most beautiful when the parts are all or nearly of the same length; as it adds to the harmony of the period, and renders the cadence of the several members more musical. The Greek rhetoricians were much addicted to it, particularly Isocrates; but some of the best orators avoided it, as having too much the appearance of art.

iii. The next figure is synonymia. Strictly

the speaker pretends to omit, or pass by, what at the same times he declares. It is used either in praise or dispraise. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Sextius; I might say many things of his liberality, kindness to his domestics, his command in the army, and moderation during his office in the province; but the honor of the state presents itself to my view; and calling me to it, advises me to omit these lesser matters.' There is a beautiful instance of this figure in St. Paul's epistle to Philemon, ver. 19. Hermogenes observes that this figure is principally used on three occasions: either when things are small, but yet necessary to be mentioned; or well known, and need not be enlarged on; or ungrateful, and therefore to be introduced with caution.

3: Parrhesia, or reprehension. The orator sometimes prepares his hearers for this by commending them first, urging the necessity of it, representing his great concern for them as his motive, or joining himself with them. Thus Cicero charges the senate with the death of Servius Sulpicius, for sending him to Mark Antony under a very ill state of health. His design was to make them agree to a motion he was to make, that a statue and monument might be erected to his memory at the public expense. Sometimes the orator assumes an air of reproof, with a view only to pass a compliment with a better grace. As Cicero in his address to Cæsar, when he says, I hear that saying from you with concern, 'that you have lived long enough, either for the purposes of nature or glory:' for nature perhaps, if you think so; and, if you please, for glory; but what is principally to be regarded, not for your

country.

4. Aparithmesis, or enumeration, is when that which might be expressed by a few words is branched out into several particulars. Cicero, in pleading for the Manilian law, where his design is to conciliate the esteem of the people to Pompey, thus enlarges upon his character: "What can be said either worthy of him, or new to you, or which every one has not heard? For those are not the only virtues of a general which are commonly thought so; labor in affairs, courage in dangers, industry in acting, despatch in performing, design in contriving; which are greater in him than in all other generals we have ever seen or heard of."

5. Exergasia, or exposition, has an affinity with the former figure; but differs in this, that it consists of several equivalent expressions, or nearly such, to represent the same thing in a stronger manner; whereas the other enlarges the idea by an enumeration of different particulars. So that this figure has a near relation to synonymia.

6. Aporia, or doubt, expresses the debate of the mind with itself upon a pressing difficulty. A person in such a state is apt to hesitate, or start several things successively, without coming to any fixed resolution. Of this kind is that of Cicero for Cluentius, when he says, 'I know not which way to turn myself. Shall I deny the scandal thrown upon him of bribing the judges? Can I say the people were not told of it? &c. Orators sometimes begin their discourse with this figure. A diffidence of mind at first is not unbecoming, but graceful; it carries in it an air of modesty,

and tends very much to conciliate the affections of the hearers.

7. Sometimes a passion has that effect, not much to render a person doubtful what to say, as to stop him in the midst of a sentence, and prevent his expressing the whole of what he designed; and then it is called aposiopesis, or concealment. It denotes different passions; as anger, which, by its heat and vehemence, causes persons to break off abruptly in their discourse: and Cicero, in a letter to Cassius, uses it to express fear, when he says to him, Brutus could scarcely support himself at Mutina; if he is safe we have carried the day. But if-heaven avert the omen! all must have recourse to you.' His meaning is, 'If Brutus should be defeated.'

8. Erotesis, interrogation. Every question i not figurative; but it becomes figurative, when the putting it by way of question gives it life and spirit. As when Cicero says, Catiline, how long will you abuse our patience? Do not you perceive your designs are discovered?' It serves also to press and bear down an adversary. Thus in his defence of Plancius: 'I will make you this offer, choose any tribe you please, and show by whom it was bribed; and if you cannot, as I believe you will not, I will prove how he gained it. Is this a fair contest? Will you engage on this foot? I cannot give you fairer play. Why are you silent? Why do you dissemble? Why do you hesitate? I insist upon it, urge you to it, press it, require, and even demand it of you.'

9. Ecphonesis, or exclamation, is a vehement extension of the voice, occasioned by a commotion of mind, naturally venting itself. This figure is used by Cicero to express a variety of passions.

10. Epiphonema, or acclamation, has a great affinity with the figure. It is so called, when the speaker, at the conclusion of his argument, makes some lively and just remark upon what he has been saying, to give it the greater force. It is not so impetuous as exclamation, being usually expressive of the milder and more gentle passions. When Cicero has shown that recourse is never to be had to force, but in cases of the utmost necessity, he adds, thus to think, is prudence; to act, fortitude; both to think and act, perfect and consummate virtue.'

11. Apostrophe, or address, is when the speaker breaks off from the series of his discourse, and addresses himself to some particular person present or absent, living or dead; or even to inanimate nature: thus he has an opportunity of saying many things with greater freedom than if immediately addressing the persons themselves. He can admonish, chide, or censure, without giving offence. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Milo, expressing his concern if he should not succeed in it, says, 'And how shall I answer it to you, my brother Quintus, the partner of my misfortunes, who art now absent?' An appeal to heaven, or any part of inanimate nature, has something very sublime and solemn in it, which we often meet with in sacred writ. So the divine prophet: Hear, O heavens! and give ear, O earth! for the Lord hath spoken.' And Jeremy: Be astonished, O ye heavens, at this.' See APOSTROPHE.

12. Prosopopoeia, or the fiction of a person: by which either an absent person is introduced speaking; or one who is dead, as if he were alive and present; or speech is attributed to some inanimate being. There is no figure, peraps, which serves better purposes to an orator han this. For by it he is enabled to call in all nature to his assistance. There is scarcely any thing fit to be said, but may be introduced this way. When he has severe things to say, and which may give offence as coming from himself, he avoids this by putting them into the mouth of some other person, from whom they will be better taken; or makes inanimate nature bring a charge, or express a resentment, to render it the more affecting and by the same method he sometimes secures himself from a charge of flattery, in carrying a compliment too high. Cicero, in his oration for Balbus, introduces Marius, who was dead, to plead in his defence: Can Balbus,' says he, be condemned, without condemning Marius for a like fact? Let him be present to your thoughts, since he cannot be so in person. Let him tell you, he was not unacquainted with leagues, void of examples, or ignorant of war.' And again, in his first invective against Catiline, he represents his country as expostulating with himself, and upbraiding him for suffering such a criminal as Catiline to live. In the management of this figure, care should be taken that what is said be always consistent with the character introduced.

In treating upon figures, we have hitherto considered them separately; but some expressions consist of a complication of them, and may come under the denomination of several figures, as well verbal as those of sentences, differently considered. Examples of this the judicious reader will easily discover, both in ancient and modern orations.

IV. Of style, and its different characters.-The word style properly signifies the instrument which the ancients used in writing. For as they commonly wrote upon thin boards covered over with wax, and sometimes upon the barks of trees, they made use of a long instrument like a bodkin, pointed at one end, with which they cut their letters, and broad at the other, to erase any thing they chose to alter. This the Latins called stylus. But, though this be the first sense of the word, yet afterwards it came to denote the manner of expression. In this sense we likewise use it, by the same kind of trope that we call any one's writing his hand. Style, then, in the common acceptation of the word, is the peculiar manner in which a man expresses his conceptions by means of language. The reasons which occasion a variety of style, we cannot here dis

cuss.

The foundation of a good style is good sense. Cicero recommends to all who are candidates for eloquence, and desirous to become masters of a good style, to write much. This affords them an opportunity to digest their thoughts, and weigh their words and expressions so as to give every thing its proper force and evidence: while, by reviewing a discourse composed, we correct its errors or supply its defects.

Different countries have not only a different

language, but a peculiarity of style. The eastern nations, for instance, had a lofty and majestic manner of speaking. Their words are full and sonorous, their expressions strong and forcible, and warmed with the most lively and moving figures. This is evident from the writings of the Old Testament, in which we find a most agreeable mixture of simplicity and dignity. On the contrary, the style of the more northern languages generally partakes of their climate: There is,' says Mr. Addison, a certain coldness and indifference in the phrases of our European languages, compared with the oriental forms of speech. And it happens very luckily, that the Hebrew idioms run into the English tongue with a peculiar grace and beauty. Our language has received innumerable elegancies and improvements from that infusion of Hebraisms, which are derived to it out of the poetical passages in holy writ. They give a force and energy to our expressions, warm and animate our language, and convey our thoughts in more ardent and intense phrases, than any that are to be met with in our own tongue. There is something so pathetic in this kind of diction that it often sets the mind in a flame, and makes our hearts burn within us.' Spect. No. 405.

The style of the same nation has been found also to vary with the great events of its history and the prevailing manners. The Athenians, while they continued a free state, were an active, industrious and frugal people; and cultivated the arts and sciences beyond any other nation: but as they had powerful enemies, and were exceedingly jealous of their liberties, this preserved them from luxury. Their style was at this time agreeable to their conduct; accurate and close, but very expressive. The Asiatics, on the other hand, were more gay and loose in their manners, devoted to luxury and pleasure; and accordingly they affected a florid and swelling style, filled with redundancies and superfluities of expression. The Rhodian style was a medium between these two; neither so concise and expressive as the Attic, nor so loose and redundant as the Asiatic. Quintilian says it had a mixture of its author, and the humor of the people; and, like plants set in a foreign soil, degenerated from the Attic purity, but not so wholly as to lose it. They first received it from schines, who, being worsted in his famous contest with Demosthenes, retired thither, and taught them rhetoric.

Cicero tells us that the first Latin historians aimed at nothing more than barely to make themselves intelligible, with as much brevity as possible. Those who succeeded them advanced a step further; and gave a better turn and cadence to their sentences, though still without ornament. But afterwards, when the Greek language became fashionable at Rome, by copying after Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, and others, they gradually introduced all their beauties into their own tongue, which in Cicero's time was brought to its highest perfection. But it did not long continue in that state. A degeneracy of manners soon corrupted their language, which Quintilian very much regrets. The case was the same with respect to the Greek tongue; though its purity continued much longer than that of the

cay.

Latin. Nor can any language be exempt from the common fate of all human productions; which have their beginning, perfection, and deBesides, there is a sort of fashion even in language. Cicero tells us that the most ancient Greek orators whose writings were extant in his time, such as Pericles, Alcibiades, and others, were subtle, acute, concise, and abounded in sense rather than words. But another class that followed them, among whom were Critias, Theramenes, and Lysias, retained the good sense of the former, while they improved their style. After these came Isocrates, who added all the flowers and beauties of eloquence: and, as he had many followers, they applied these ornaments and decorations according to their different tastes; some by pomp and splendor, and others by greater force and energy. In this last way Demosthenes principally excelled. Afterwards they sunk into a softer and smoother manner, not less exact and florid, but more cold and life

less.

But the chief distinction of style arises from the different subjects of discourse. The same way of speaking no more suits all subjects than the same garment would all persons and all ranks. The style, therefore, should always be adapted to the subject, which rhetoricians have reduced to three ranks viz. the low or plain style, the middle or temperate, and the lofty or sublime: which are likewise called characters, because they denote the quality of the subject upon which they treat. This division of style into three characters was taken notice of very early by ancient writers. Some observe it even in Homer, who assigns the sublime to Ulysses, when he represents him so copious and vehement an orator that his words came from him like winter snow; while he describes Menelaus as a polite speaker, but concise and moderate; and represents Nestor's manner as between these two, not so high as the one, nor so low as the other; but smooth, even, and pleasant, or, as he expresses it, more sweet than honey. Quintilian observes that, although accuracy and politeness were general characters of the Attic writers, yet among their orators, Lysias excelled in a low and familiar style; Isocrates in elegance, smoothness, and the fine turn of his periods; and Demosthenes in fire and rapidity, by which he carried all before him. Gellius tells us that the like difference was found in the three philosophers who were sent from the Athenians to Rome (before the Romans had any relish for the polite arts) to solicit the remittance of a fine laid upon them. Carneades was vehement and rapid in his harangues; Critolaus neat and smooth; and Diogenes modest and sober. The eloquence of these orators, and the agreeable variety of their manner, so captivated the Roman youth, and inflamed them with such a love of the Grecian arts, that old Cato, who did all he could to check it by hurrying away the ambassadors, could not prevent their vigorous pursuit of them, till the study became in a manner universal. And the old philosopher himself afterwards learned the Greek language, when it became more fashionable; which lord Bacon styles a punishment upon him for his forIt seldom happens that the same

mer crime.

person excels in each of these characters. They seem to require a different genius, and most orators are naturally led to one of them more than another; though all of them are requisite for an orator on different occasions. See STYLE.

V. Of the style of an orator.-The style of an orator must occasionally comprehend all the characters of low, middle, and sublime, as they are applied by him in the different parts of his province. For the language must be suited to the subject, and the different views of the speaker necessarily occasion a variety in the manner of expression. Now an orator has three objects in view; to prove what he asserts, to represent it in an agreeable light, and to move the passions. Each of these parts of his province requires a different style. The low style is most proper for proof and information; the middle style is best suited for pleasure and entertainment; but the sublime is necessary to influence the passions. Here the orator calls in all the assistance of nature and art; the most raised and lofty thoughts, clothed with the brightest and strongest coloring, enter into this character. As short periods are proper in the low style, so less care is necessary in their turn and cadency. But the words should be well chosen and proper, suited to the ideas they are designed to convey; the expressions plain and clear, and the artificial ornaments few and modest. Bold or lofty metaphors, or in which the allusion is dark and remote, ought to be avoided. Of these, such as come nearest to the natural way of expression are most proper for this style.

As the middle style is more adapted for pleasure and delight, it admits of all those beauties and ornaments which soothe and entertain the mind. It has more force and energy than the low style, but less than the sublime. Smooth and harmonious numbers, well-turned periods, of a just length, delightful cadence, and accurate disposition of the words, are suited to this style. The most beautiful and shining tropes, which strike the fancy, and all those figures which, by repetition, similitude, or proportion of sounds, please and gratify the ear, help to form this character.

But it is the sublime style which perfects the orator. This requires the most forcible and emphatical words, the boldest metaphors, and strongest figures. In verbal figures, repetitions, synonymes, gradations, contraries, with others of a like force and energy, are chiefly employed here. But figures of sentences are the most considerable, and principally contribute to make up this character. Among these are similies taken from lofty subjects, prosopopœia, apostrophe, exclamation, epiphonema, aposiopesis, and others of a like nature. But due care must be taken of the form, construction, and harmony of the periods; which seem best disposed when long and short ones are intermixed. For, though round and swelling periods carry in them something grand and majestic, yet they often move too slow to strike the passions; whereas short ones are more acute and pungent, and, by returning quick, awaken the mind, and raise the passions. But, to render it complete, it must