or inclination. Quis rem tam veterem pro certo affirmet? Livy. Mediocribus et queis ignoscas vitiis teneor. Hor. Denique, hercle, aufugerim, potius quam redeam, si eo mihi redeundum sciam. Ter. Quid facias talem sortitus, Pontice, servum ? Juv. 2. Agent indefinite, or not limited to any certain individual. Neque is sum qui disputem. Nullum est animal, præter hominem, quod habet notitiam aliquam Dei. Parvulæ respublicæ sunt bellicosæ, et quod vires sint exigua, sæpe insidiis circumvenire hostes tentant. In these, and similar sentences, the nature, or kind only of the agents is expressed. The same mood is used, when the phrase is turned impersonally, and the agent is put in the ablative; as, Erant quibus videretur. 3. Time indefinite, either as to its duration, or the parts of it at which any particular circumstances occurred. This includes, of course, a reference to the different objects of action, when spoken of in a general, or indefinite manner. Quæ in hoc libro scripserim. Cum me rogaret ut adessem. Cic. Cum me rogabat would express a very different idea. In Cumano cum essem venit ad me Hortensius. Cic. Still it must be acknowledged that there is some variety in the practice of Latin writers, with regard to the subjunctive mood. Instances of the indicative being used, according to the Greek idiom, in a subjunctive meaning, (as has been already considered,) Occur frequently in Plautus and Terence, who translated Greek into Latin; and even Cicero, though very rarely, uses the same form of expression: as, Priusquam de republica dicere incipio. But exceptions of this kind do not invalidate the general principle on which the regular use of this mood is founded. Of the other moods, and the tenses, in Latin, nothing occurs worth mentioning, connected with the subject of this Essay. I may observe, however, that, by taking the imperative for the original form of the Latin verb, the business of conjugating would be rendered much more simple, than by the circuitous method which grammarians have adopted. Thus from Audi, by the addition only of certain syllables, we have audio, audiebam, audivi, &c. Although the modern languages of the south-west of Europe afford no original authority, on this subject, yet we shall find that they are all constructed upon the same principles that we have already considered. 11. Italian. In the Italian language, which occupies the place that the Latin formerly held, we may expect to find the strongest resemblance of the common parent tongue. And it will, accordingly, be found that almost all the inflections of the Italian verbs may be formed, by adding certain terminations to the imperative mood. Thus, imp. ama, indic. amo-amai-amero; subj. ami-amassi, &c. &c. 12. Spanish. Next to the Italian, the Spanish may be considered as retaining most of the ancient Latin form, and such it appears to have, according to the general principles that have been laid down. Thus, imp. habla, speak; indic. hablo-hablaba-hable-hablarè; subj. hable-hablarìa—hablāse, &c. The Portuguese dialect of this language inflects its verbs on the same principle. Thus, imp. ama; indic. amo amava ;— amei-amarei; subjunct. ame-amara―amaria, &c. It will be seen, in all these instances, that the inflection is much simpler than by commencing with the indicative, or the infinitive. 13. French. Although the French departs farthest from the Latin manner of terminating its verbs, yet we find, in this, as in the other languages, that the imperative is the simplest form. Thus, imp. aime; indic. aime-aimai-aimerai; subjunct. aime-aimerais, &c. I have thus endeavoured to follow the course of nature, in the formation of moods; proceeding from the simplest elements of sound to the compound words which represent a combination of ideas. And, from the consideration of verbs, in those languages which are most commonly known, we see that the principles of nature prevail in them all. It is fair to argue, from this specimen, that the same order is observed in languages with which we are less acquainted. Whether any practical use may be made of this theory 1 shall not say; but it is not unpleasant to trace the operations of nature, in the modes of speech, unfettered by the dogmas, and limited terms of art. The mind is thus raised above mere grammatical rules to the consideration of its own faculties and exertions; while the contrast of simpler tongues, with those of more elaborate structure suggests reflections upon the primitive character of one nation, and the refined science of another. Belfast College, May, 1819. W. NEILSON. ON THE ANTIQUITY OF ALCHYMY. HOUGH I am no alchymist, yet as a relaxation from severer studies, I have read with considerable attention the works of the most celebrated writers on alchymy; and, as the result of this reading, am induced to think, that there is as much historical evidence for the truth of this art, as for any past transaction, which is believed on the testimony of those that record it. I was much gratified, therefore, to find, in the preceding number of the Classical Journal, the arguments, of those who contend that the Egyptians possessed this art, displayed with so much ability by Sir William Drummond. Certain very respectable authorities, however, for the great antiquity of this art, appear not only to have escaped the notice of that gentleman, but of all the modern writers with whom I am acquainted. The authorities are these: Manetho, in the 4th book, p. 66. of his astrological poem, entitled Apotelesmatica, has the following lines: Και μουνη Κυθέρεια συνῃ καλῳ Φαέθοντι Ρεκτηρας χρυσοιο, και Ινδογενούς ελέφαντος i. e. "Venus alone, in conjunction with the beautiful Phaethon (the sun), indicates MAKERS OF GOLD, and workers of Indian ivory." This Manetho lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, to whom also he dedicated his work. In the second place, the Empress Eudocia, in her Greek Dictionary, p. 108, published by Villoison, observes as follows, concerning the so much celebrated Golden Fleece: 4ov Μιτυληναίος, ανθρωπον φησι γεγενησθαι παιδαγωγον του Φρύξου, ονοματι Κριον και δέρας χρυσόμαλλον, ουχ ως ποιητικως φερεται, αλλα βιβλιον ην εν δέρμασι γεγραμμενον, περιεχον όπως δει γενεσθαι δια χημειας χρυσουν. εικότως ουν οι τοτε λεγει, χρυσουν ωνόμαζον αυτο δέρας, δια την εξ αυτού ενεργειαν. i. e." Dionysius the Mitylenean says, that a man whose name was Crius,' was the pedagogue of Phryxus, and that the sheep-skin had a golden fleece, not conformably to poetic assertion, but that it was a book written on skins, containing the manner in which gold ought to be made, according to the chymic art. Justly therefore, did those of that period denominate the skin golden, through the energy proceeding from it." This Diony 'This word, as the learned reader well knows, signifies a ram, sius, as Fabricius shows (in Biblioth. Græc.), lived somewhat prior to Cicero. In the third place, Plotinus, in his treatise On Matter, speaks of the analysis of other metals into gold, as a thing possible to be effected. For he says, "6 Analysis also shows the existence of matter [i. e. of the formless and ultimate subject of bodies]. Just as if a pot should be analysed into gold, but gold into water; and water when corrupted, requires an analogous process.” Και η ανάλυσις δε οιον ει η φιαλη εις τον χρυσον ο δε χρυσος εις ύδωρ, και το υδωρ δε φθειρόμενον το ανάλογον απαιτει. What Plotinus here says of the analysis into gold, is perfectly conformable to the assertion of Albertus Magnus, as cited by Becher in his Physica Subterranea, p. 319. For his words are, «Non dari rem elementatam, in cujus ultima substantiatione non reperiatur aurum." That all metals likewise may be analysed into water is the doctrine of Plato, who in his Timæus says, "that water is twofold; one kind of which is humid, but the other fusile." And he adds, "that among all those which we denominate fusile waters, that which becoming most dense from attenuated and equable parts, is of a uniform kind, and participates of a splendid and yellow color, is that most honored and valuable possession gold, which is usually impelled through a rock.” In the last place, in the selections from Chemical Greek Manuscripts, in the Bibliotheca Græca of Fabricius, Tom. 12. p. 765, there is an extract from a treatise of one Olympiodorus to Petasius, king of Armenia, in which among other things it is said, "that the art of making gold was most diligently concealed by the Egyptians; that those who were skilled in the art, alone exercised it for the use of the king; and that these men accompanied him in his wars, in order to supply his treasury." For the sake of the learned reader, however, and as the extract does not appear to be much known, I will transcribe the whole, as given by Fabricius. Ολυμπιόδωρου φιλοσοφου Αλεξανδρέως προς Πετασιον τον βασιλεα Αρμενίας εις το κατ' ενέργειαν Ζωσίμου όσα από Ερμου και των φιλοσοφων ήσαν ειρημένα. Incipit: Γίνεται η ταρίχεια απο μηνός Μεχις κε και εως Μεσωρι κε, &c. In hoc apospasmatio multa non indigna relatu, quæ excerpere juvat. Εθος γαρ τοις αρχαίοις συγ καλυπτειν την αληθειαν, και τα παντα τοις ανθρωποις ευδηλα δια αλληγο ζιων τινων και τεχνης ενφιλοσοφου αποκρυπτείν, ου μονον δε οτι τας τι μιας ταύτας τέχνας τη αφέγγει αυτών και σκοτεινότατη εκδώσει συνεσκιασαν, αλλα και αυτα τα κοινά ρηματα δι άλλων τινων ρημάτων μετεφρα σαν, εις τουτο αυτο Πλατωνα και Αριστοτέλην αλληγορήσαντες. Αυ την δηλαδη την ψαμμον ανωθεν ουσιουσαν, ηντινα οι αρχαιοι δια το κυριον ονομα επεθηκαν λιθαργυρον. και εις αυτήν εστιν ευρείν και το τετρασύλλαβον, και το ενναγραμμου γνους οτι τα σκωριδιά εστι το ολον μυστηριον, ολοι γαρ εις αυτα κρέμανται και αποβλέπουσι, και τα μύρια αινιγματα εις αυτα ανατρέχει, και αι βιβλοι αι τοσαύται αυτα αινίττονται.αυται αι Αιγυπτίων γραφαι, και ποιήσεις και δόξαι, χρησμοι τε δαιμονων και εκθεσεις προφητών. Sæpius citatur Zosimus, sed et Democritus, Agathodæmon, et Maria. Zosimi dictum ab aliis etiam laudatum : εαν μη τα σωματα ασωμάτωσης και ποίησης τα δυο εν, ουδέν των προσδοκωμένων εσται. Sed quæ ex ejusdem τη τελευταία αποχή προς Θεοσεβειαν afferuntur, adscribenda sunt, quæ et infra num. 45. repetuntur, nihilo magis integra: Ολον το της Αιγυπτου βασιλειον, ω γυναι, από των δυο τουτων τεχνων συνεστηκε, των τε κηρυκων και των φυσικων ψαμμων, η γαρ καλούμενη θεία τέχνη, τουτεστιν η δογματική περι ην ασχολούται άπαντες οι ζητουντες τα χειροτμηματα απαντα, και τας τιμίας τέχνας, τας τεσσαράς φημι, δοκουσιν τι ποιειν μονοις εξεδόθη τοις ιερεύσιν. η γαρ φυσικη ψαμμουργικη βασιλεων ην. ωστε και εαν συμβῇ ιερεα η σοφον λεγόμενον ερμηνευσαντα τα εκ των παλαιών, η απο προγονων εκληρονομησεν, και εχων και ιδων την γνωσιν αυτων την ακωλυτον, ουκ εποιει ετιμωρειτο γαρ. ωσπερ οι τεχνιται οι επισταμενοι βασιλικον τυπτειν νομισμα, ουχ εαυτοις τύπτουσιν, επει τιμωρούνται. ούτω και επι τοις βασιλευσι των Αιγυπτίων, οι τεχνιται της εψήσεως, οι έχοντες την γνωσιν της αμμοπλη σιας και ακολουθίας, ουχ εαυτοις εποιουν, αλλ' εις αυτο τουτο εστρατεύοντο εις τους θησαυρους εργαζομενοι. είχον δε και ιδιους αρχόντας επικειμένους επανω των θησαυρών, και αρχιστρατηγούς, και πολλην τυραννίην της εψήσεως. νομος γαρ ην Αιγυπτίοις, μηδέ εγγράφως αυτα τινα εκδιδοναι. Τινες ουν μεμφονται Δημοκριτον και τους αρχαίους, ως μη μνημονευ σαντας τούτων των δυο τεχνων, αλλα μονων των λεγομενων τιμίων. ματην δε αυτούς μεμφονται. ου γαρ ηδυναντο φιλοι οντες των βασιλεων Αιγυπ του, και τα πρωτεία εν προφητική αυχουντες, πως ηδύναντο αναφανδον μαθηματα κατα των βασιλεων δημοσια εκθεσθαι, και δούναι αλλοις πλουτου τυραννίδα. ουτε ει ηδύναντο εξεδίδουν, εφθονουν γαρ. μονοις δε Ιουδαίοις εξον ην λαθρα ταυτα ποιειν και γράφειν και εκδιδοναι· αμελει γουν ευρισκομεν Θεοφίλον τον Θεογενους, γράψαντα ολα τα της χειρογραφιας ευτυχεία, και Μαρίας την καμινογραφίαν, και άλλους Ιουδαίους, και Συνεσίος προς Διοσκόρον 2 γραφων, &c. Ad Ptolemæi Bibliothecas allegat his verbis : καλείται δε και παρθενος γης και γη αιμα τωδης. Ταυτα δε ευρήσεις εν ταις Πτολεμαίου βιβλιοθήκαις. The most remarkable circumstance in this extract is, that permission should be given by the Egyptian kings, to the Jews alone, latently to practise, to write about, and to publish this art. Perhaps this most singular exception in favor of the Jews, was owing to * Α1. χειροτεχνηματα, vel χειρόκμητα. 2 This Dioscorus was a priest of Serapis in Alexandria, so that he lived prior to the destruction of the ancient temples. See the treatise of Synesius to him, in the 7th vol. of Fabricius. |