disease of the hair which occurs in Poland | can be procured, is the agent generally pre. and the adjacent countries.-See Hair.

PLUMMER'S PILL-also called compound calomel pill, is one of the most useful alterative, and gently diaphoretic pills or remedies in general use; it rarely acts on the bowels, and may be taken for a considerable time without affecting the system. Plummer's pill also contains a preparation of antimony. The dose is from three to ten grains.

Refer to-Mercury-Pill, &c. PNEUMONIA. - Inflammation of the substance of the lungs.-See Lungs.

POISON.-Considerable difficulty has been experienced in giving such a definition of the word poison as shall, whilst sufficiently inclusive, be sufficiently precise. Some substances, such as strychnine, corrosive sublimate, &c., &c., can never be considered otherwise than as poisons, in every sense of the word, but when cayenne or common pepper, cream of tartar, even common salt, and other substances not unusually used in food, have been found in large doses to act as poisons, it becomes very difficult to frame a correct definition of the term. Mr. Taylor, in his Manual of Jurisprudence, says: "Perhaps the most comprehensive definition which can be suggested is this, "a poison is a substance which, when taken internally, is capable of destroying life without acting mechanically on the system." Some substances, however, act as poisons through the skin, such as those of infectious diseases, others, probably, through the lungs. Poisons are usually classed under the three heads of irritant, narcotic, and narcotic acrid poisons. Of the first, arsenic and the mineral acids are examples; of the second, opium and henbane; of the third, alcohol and strychnine. As the treatment to be immediately adopted in cases of poisoning by various substances, is given sufficiently when these substances are treated of, it is unnecessary to repeat it here.

As a general rule, it may be acted upon in cases of poisoning, that the sooner the ejection of the poisonous agent from the stomach can be procured the better. In the majority of instances, perhaps, nature effects this in a more or less perfect manner before any remedy can be employed; indeed the occurrence of vomitting is often the first symptom of the action of the poison.

These natural efforts, however, must not be alone trusted to, even if they take place, and, in almost every case, the best thing that can be done, is to excite full free vomiting. This may be brought about by any of the emetic substances so often mentioned, but sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol. when it

ferred for the purpose. In its absence, salt or mustard may be used, and are almost always procurable; indeed any other emetic at hand should be resorted to,-an infusion of the root of the sweet violet, in the absence of others, or chamomile tea, or warm water in abundance; the action of vomiting being also excited by irritating the throat with the finger, or with a feather.

Next to the evacuation of the poisonous substance, its neutralization is important; indeed, in the case of such poisons as the mineral acids, it is to be the first object. It is unnecessary to repeat here the proper remedies which more especially neutralize the effects of different poisons, as they are given in their proper places, but as a general rule, milk, oleaginous substances, and demulcent fluids, such as linseed-tea or barley. water, or hasty pudding, will be useful, if given freely, in protecting the coats of the stomach from the contact of the poison, and by interfering with the absorption of the latter into the system.

Lastly, it must be an object to counteract the effects of the poison upon the system at large; as in the case of opium, the narcotic influence is combatted with forced exertion, coffee, &c., or in poisoning by prussic acid by stimulants and cold affusion.

All

When poisoning is known or suspected to have occurred, the first thing is to procure proper medical assistance as quickly as possible; nothing must stand in the way of that. the next is, to ascertain the nature of the poison, if possible, and the amount taken, the remedial measures which may be known, either by reference to such works as the present, or from other sources of information, being adopted as quickly as may be. vomited, and other matters-such as evacuations from the bowels-which may contain trace of, or afford clue to the poison, must be reserved for the inspection of the medical man. Sometimes, individuals, from throwing away, in the excitement of the moment, the poisoned food, or whatever it may be, have found themselves unpleasantly situated, and objects of suspicion. If there is any idea that there has been criminal proceeding connected with the poisoning, some responsible person should secure whatever may guide in the investigation of the truth, and place all under lock and key, ana seal, till the arrival of the authorities; food and vomited matters should be sealed in suitable vessels.

The symptoms which would give rise to the suspicion of poisoning having taken place, are those of sudden illness shortly after taking food or medicine, the individual

* For an account of the new medicine called Podophylline-see Appendix.

having previously been in good health, or | Further, it must be remembered, that at least free from the peculiar, and generally although symptoms of poisoning may be violent, symptoms developed, particularly distinctly traceable to the effects of a meal those indicative of irritation of the stomach recently eaten; it by no means follows, that and bowels, or of narcotic or irritant influence the poisoning has been the consequence of upon the nervous system. When poisons something added, either intentionally or are either given or taken for criminal pur-accidentally, to the food; it may be the conposes, the symptoms usually show themselves quickly and severely, on account of the dose of the deleterious substance being generally large. At the same time it is to be remarked, that the presence of much food on the stomach, sleep, and intoxication, have all been known to retard the development of symptoms from even large doses of poison. If a number of persons who have partaken of the same dish, are seized shortly after with symptoms of illness, the suspicion of poison is, of course, greatly strengthened. It is perhaps necessary, however, to caution all, against a too hasty assumption of the fact of poisoning, at least as far as the criminal implication of others is concerned; if there is suspicion, it will in any case be better to take such measures as may be thought requisite, as quietly as possible, until the bearings of the case have been examined by competent persons. This caution is necessary, for there are diseases, such as British cholera, which not unfrequently first break out shortly after a meal, and spasms of the stomach are not uncommon with some after food; perhaps the disease which has most frequently given rise to suspicion of poisoning-doubt less on account of its all but universal fatality—is "perforation," alluded to a few pages back.

*

In connection with the above remarks, the following from Taylor's Medical Jurisprudence, is important: "It seems highly probable, that the mere fact of a person eating a full meal after long fasting, will give rise to symptoms resembling those of irritant poisoning." "Mr. Holland, of Manchester, has communicated two cases of this description. In one, the symptoms were very violent and the patient nearly died, in fact was laid out for dead: the other patient suffered from severe gastralgia -nervous pain in the stomach-for several weeks. Poisoning was at first strongly suspected, but the suspicion was removed by the fact, that others in health had partaken of the same food, principally potatos mixed with gravy, without any injury, and there was no reason to suppose that any irritant poison could have been mixed with the food. The two who suffered, were extremely weak and exhausted from long fasting, and were observed to eat their food, which was quite wholesome, voraciously."

sequence of changes which have taken place
in the food itself; many casualties from this
cause are recorded. In Germany, numerous
deaths have occurred, in consequence of
sausages prepared in that part of Europe
undergoing a peculiar kind of putrefactive
fermentation, which renders them highly
deleterious. In this country, the flesh of
animals which have died from disease has
not unfrequently been known to give rise tc
symptoms of poisoning. Fat or oily food,
when in a state of decay, seems peculiarly
injurious; salmon, bacon, &c., having in
this state been found poisonous.
At a
festival held in the Canton of Zurich some
years ago, at which about 600 persons were
present, nearly two-thirds of the number
were affected with symptoms of poisoning,
in consequence of partaking of meat which
had become slightly tainted, and of hams-
probably the injurious article-which had
been badly cured;-some of the number
affected died. Shell-fish, it is well known,
will, in some persons, produce symptoms of
poisoning at any time, and in certain states
are probably deleterious for all.-See Mussel
-Oyster—Copper, &c. A recently-noticed
source of poisoning requires mention.
is that which might ensue from the flesh of
game birds-partridges especially-which
have been destroyed by feeding on grain
steeped in arsenic and scattered about for
the purpose of destroying other birds. It
is said that partridges thus destroyed are
not found lying on their sides like dead
birds generally, but are found sitting as if
in life. It is to be feared, that birds found
thus, fresh, and in good condition, might,
by unscrupulous or ignorant persons, be
sold as other game.

It

It has been mentioned, that the common garden rhubarb contains oxalic acid,-not in sufficient quantity to injure in the moderate use; but when used largely, especially in some constitutions, it may give rise to unpleasant symptoms connected with the kidneys.

Liebig records a singular mode of fatal poisoning, which occurs in Germany "from the drinking of what is called the featherwhite wine." This poisonous wine, is wine still in a state of fermentation, which is increased by the heat of the stomach. The carbonic acid gas which is disengaged pene trates through the coats of the stomach,

*It is of course possible to imitate, or attempt to imitate the slow progress of natural disease by the repeated and continued administration of small doses of some poisonous drugs, but it has been happily proved, as in the recent notorious Pritchard case, that this cannot be done without detection.

through the diaphragm, and through all |
the intervening membranes, into the air
cells of the lungs, out of which it displaces
the atmospheric air. The patient dies with
all the symptoms of suffocation caused by
an irrespirable gas. The best antidote in
this form of poisoning, is the inhalation of
ammonia. The development or formation
of poison within the body itself, is a subject
which has been but little investigated. The
characteristic ingredient of the urine, urea,
i retained in the circulation, acts as a
narcotic poison. Oxalic acid is certainly
formed within the body; perhaps prussic
acid. When the fæcal contents of the ali-
mentary canal, especially of the large bowel,
are long retained, and re-absorbed into the
circulation, as they undoubtedly are, they
exert effects somewhat akin to poisoning,
and the author believes he has traced extreme
temporary depression, of the system to this
cause alone.

In connection with poisons, the factmore than once alluded to in this workmust not be lost sight of, that it is possible for the long-continued daily reception of even minute doses of certain poisonous substances, at last, by "accumulation," to exert pernicious effects upon the system. See Mercury-Lead, &c. This must not be confounded with the criminal, secret, slow poisoning, so often recorded as the practice in ages gone by, a crime which it is more than doubtful could be practised in the present day without certain detection.

Before leaving the subject of poisoning, it is requisite to advert to the influence which habit exerts over the effects exercised by poisons on the human subject. All know how largely the habitual consumers of opium can increase their doses, and that the same is observed with respect to other drugs, chiefly of the narcotics; but the most remarkable instance of this power of habit, is in the case of the "arsenic eaters" of Styria, and adjacent provinces, of whom it is an ascertained fact, that they habitually consume large and poisonous doses of solid arsenic, not only without injury, but with, it is alleged, apparent benefit to health.-See Wounds Poisoned, and the various articles on poisonous agents.*

bility; they are generally attached to the
surface whence they spring by a narrow
neck. The chief inconvenience which results
from polypus in the nose, is the interruption
to breathing through the nostril, at night
especially; the affected person can only lie
with the mouth open, which therefore be-
comes most uncomfortably parched. When
polypus, however, in this situation, increases
to a large size, it necessarily displaces the
adjacent parts, such as the soft palate, or
distends the nostrils. In any case, polypus
is so uncomfortable a companion, that its
removal is generally sought.
This must,
in all cases, be effected by the surgeon,
by means of ligatures, scissors, or forceps
and, therefore, proper surgical advice shoula
be resorted to. Occasionally, polypus in
the nose will yield to the persevering use of
astringent powders, such as that of burnt
alum, or it may be regularly touched twice
a day with tincture of steel, by means of
camel-hair brush. Polypus of the womb
cannot possibly fall under the cognizance of
unprofessional persons.

"The original

POMEGRANATE. This anciently. known tree-a native of Asia and Africa, is cultivated in warm countries generally. The flowers, the rind of the fruit, and the bark of the root, have been used in medicine as astringents, but the most general remedial use in modern medicine, has been that of the root bark, as a remedy in tapeworm; for this purpose it is extensively used in India. Dr. Christian says, "it seems scarcely ever to fail if properly used." mode of administering it is to steep two ounces of the fresh bark in two pints of water for twelve hours, then to boil the whole down to one pint, and to give a wineglassful of the strained decoction every two hours till the whole is taken." "Sometimes, joints of the worm begin to come away in less than an hour after the last dose; but often the doses must be repeated several successive mornings before they take effect; and it is right to repeat them occasionally for four or five days after joints have ceased to come away. Laxatives should be administered from time to time. The remedy sometimes causes nausea and vomiting. The fresh root is most efficacious. It is probable that the recent introduction of the kousso, and the greater attention directed to the employment of the root of the male fern, as remedies in tapeworm, may supersede the use of the pomegranate root in this country, but in many situations the latter drug might be procured where neither of the former could. When given in powder, the dose of pomegranate root is twenty grains. POOR.-Whilst poverty is so great an

POLYPUS-is a tumour, the result of the morbidly excessive growth of the mucous membrane lining a cavity. It is most frequently met with in the nose and in the womb, but also occurs in the ear, &c.†Polypi vary much in texture, in some cases being easily torn, and bleeding after the least injury, at others being firm and almost cartilaginous; their colour is usually grey or yellowish, and they possess but little sensi* For an account of the wholesale poisonings that have taken place, especially in Germany, from Trichine -see Appendix.

The use of the new instrument called the Laryngoscope, has shown that Polypus occurs much more frequently in the Larynx than was formerly supposed, giving rise to affections of the voice; difficulty of breathing, resembling Asthma, and other symptoms. Laryngeal Polypus is capable of removal by skilled hands.

aggravation of the evils of sickness, it is, unfortunately, too often one of its most general causes. It is a perfectly well ascertained fact, that physical deprivation and physical disease are to one another as cause and effect, and, however sad the reflection, that the insufficiently fed and clothed, and hard-worked labourer, has much less chance of prolonged health and life than those more fortunately placed. The following extracts from Dr. Combe's " Physiology of Digestion," put this in a strong light: "If overfeeding be the prevailing error among the middle and higher classes of the community, the opposite condition is as unquestionably that of a large proportion of the labouring poor. Pressed upon all sides by the powerful competition both of constantly improving machinery, and of a superabundant population, the manual labourer is impelled to undergo an amount of everrecurring bodily exertion, which far exceeds the natural powers of his constitution, even when supported by the fullest supply of nourishment; and when, as often happens, along with this excess of labour, his food, from inadequate wages, the size of his family, or his own injudicious management, is defective in quantity or in quality, the consequences to his health and happiness are disastrous in the highest degree.

chance of living forty-two and a half years, while one born of poor parents can look for no more than thirty.

"These are striking facts, and their truth is confirmed by every day's experience in Britain as well as in France. Many causes concur to produce this melancholy result, but among the principal is, unquestionably, the disproportion so generally existing between toil and nutrition. In the army, the operation of the same principle has long been recog nised, in the inferior strength and health of the privates compared with the officers. The officers being better fed, better clothed, and better lodged than the common soldiers, bear up successfully against fatigue and temporary privations, by which the latter are overwhelmed. During epidemics, too, the poor, from their impaired stamina, almost invariably become victims in a proportion far exceeding that of the more wealthy classes. This is, no doubt, partly owing to their greater intemperance and want of cleanliness; but even these vices often derive their origin from the same root —the want of adequate repose and comfortable sustenance.

"The bad consequences of defective nourishment are not confined in their operation to the bodily constitution of the labouring poor. Their minds also are deteriorated. "To those who have never reflected on the The pressure of poverty is unfavourable to subject, it may seem like exaggeration to the growth of refinement and morality, and say, that, as a general fact, at least nine- crime and turbulence are never so much to tenths of the lower orders suffer physically, be dreaded as during times of scarcity, and morally, and intellectually, from being over-manufacturing or agricultural distress. worked and underfed; and yet I am convinced, that the more the subject sll be investigated, the more deeply shall we be come impressed with the truth and importance of the statement. It is true that very few persons die from actual want of food; but it is not less certain, that thousands upon thousands are annually cut off, whose lives have been greatly shortened by excess of labour and deficiency of nourishment. It is a rare thing for a hard-working artizan to arrive at a good old age. They almost all become prematurely old, and die off long before the natural term of life. It is in this way that, as remarked by Dr. Southwood Smith, the mortality of a country may be considered as an accurate indication of the misery of its inhabitants. According to Villermé, the rate of mortality among the poor is sometimes double that among the rich. Thus it is found, he says, that in a poor district in France, one hundred die, while in a rich department only fifty are carried off; and that, on taking into account the whole population of France, a child born to parents in easy circumstances has the

"Among the poorer classes, the children as well as the parents suffer both physically and morally from insufficient food. Their diet, being chiefly of a vegetable nature, and consisting of porridge, potatos, and soups, with very little butcher meat, proves far from adequate to carry on vigorous growth in the one, or repair waste in the other; hence arise in the young an imperfect development of the bodily organisation, a corresponding deficiency of mental power, and a diminished capability of resisting the causes of disease. In workhouses, and other charitable institutions, ample evidence of these deficiencies obtrudes itself upon our notice, in the weak and stunted forms and very moderate capacities of the children."

Happily, the recent changes with respect to the importation of food, have modified in some degree the force of the above observations, but they still hold good in too many instances. The fact of the connexion be tween deficient nourishment, clothing, &c., and the production of disease, ought ever to be kept in mind by those who have the