and two or three others, are here particularly noticed.-The following were Persian historians: Abu-Said, Turan Schah, Sheriffeddin, and Mirkhond.-In Greece, we have the authors in the Byzantine collection, Anna Comnena, William of Tyre, (although he wrote in Latin,) and Gemistius.-The historians of Italy were Gottfredo di Viterbo, Petro de Vincis, Albertino Mussaco, Ludovico Bavarico, Petrarch, Leonardo Bruni, Flavio Biondo, Æneas Sylvius, Benedict Acolti, Antonio Beccatelli, Bartoli Sacchi, commonly called Platina, Bernardi Justiniani, and Julius Pomponius Lætus.-The Spanish historians were Roderigo Ximenes, Juan Nunoz de Villasan, Roderigo de Zamora, and Ferdinando de Pulgar.-In France, we find the names only of Joinville and Froissard.-German historians were, Cosmos of Prague, Otto, Helmold, Arnold von Lübeck, Conrad von Lichtenau, Albrecht, Martinus Polonus, Jakob von Königshosen, and Gobelinus Persona.-Of the many English historians, M. MEUSEL mentions as the most renowned, William of Malmsbury, Matthew Paris, and Nicholas Trivet.The father of Russian history was Nestor, a monk who lived in the beginning of the 12th century. His annals, written in Russian, were continued by Abbot Sylvester and Simeon bishop of Susdal. They were printed at Petersburg in 1767.-Aras, or Aré Frodi, wrote, about the year 1148, annals in Islandic, published by Bussæus in 1733. Snorro Sturläson, who died in 1241, was a celebrated historian, statesman, and warrior; he wrote, in Islandic, a history of the Northern Kings, which was published in 2 vols. folio by Peringskiöld in 1697, and by Thorlac and Thorkelin in 1782.-The first good historians of Denmark were Sweno Aaageson and Saxo Grammaticus.The first history of Poland was written by Vincent Kadlubek bishop of Cracow in 1226. It was published by Martino Gallo, in folio, 1749.-A priest named Henry of Lettland wrote a good history of Livonia, from the year 1184 to 1216, called Origines Livonia sacre et civilis; published by J. D. Gruber, at Leipzig in 1740.

The principal geographers of this period were Edresi, a learned Mohammedan of Cordua; the best edition of whose work was published by Hartmann at Göttingen, in 1796:Abdollatif Ibn-Jusuph of Bagdad, whose Compendium, &c. was published by Dr. White in Arabic, with a preface by Paulus, in 1789, and translated into German by Wahl in 1790:-Abulfeda, whose works have been at different times, and in parts, edited by Reiske, Grævius, Koehler, Michaelis, and Eichhorn: -Benjamin of Tudela, a travelling Jew, whose itinerary was first published by L'Empereur, 1633: it has been translated into French by Barratier, and into English by Gewans.-Here

the

the author just notices Girold's Topography of Ireland, and Dooms-day Book.

State of Mathematical Science.-The principal mathematicians, or rather astrologers, among the Arabic writers, were Alpharagius of Morocco-Abul Walid Ebn Roshd, commonly called Averroes, who was at the same time theologue, lawyer, physician, and philosopher-Aben Ragel and Alkabiz, both of Toledo-Nasiredolin, and Ulugh-Beigh, uncle to Tamerlane.From the Arabs, the western world drew its first lessons of mathematics; and from their language, Camparus, in 1150, translated Euclid's Elements.-The Emperor Frederick 11. who was himself a mechanist, astronomer, and astrologer, caused the Almagest of Ptolemy to be translated, in 1230.-Alphonsus 10th king of Castile brought astronomy into great repute, by patronizing equally the Arabic, Jewish, and Christian writers on that subject. Other mathematicians, mentioned by the author, are Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Petrus Aponensis, Franciscus Cecco, and Paulus Toscanellus.-The mariner's compass was discovered about the beginning of the 14th century, but by whom is uncertain. M. MEUSEL thinks that we owe it to the Arabs.-Peter D'Ailly and Nicolaus Cusanus attempted to correct the calendar; and the latter laboured to find the quadrature of the circle:-but Regiomontanus, and Miller, (also surnamed Regiomontanus,) were the principal mathematicians of that age. Regiomontanus's scholar, Bernard Walther, was likewise reckoned one of the best astronomers of his day His work was printed at Nurnberg in 1544.-Military tactics underwent a considerable change during this period, from the invention of gun-powder, muskets, cannons, bombs, &c. These last were invented by Siegmund Pandulph Malatesta, of Rimini, about the middle of the 15th century.

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State of Philosophy.The Platonic philosophy had hitherto prevailed in the Christian schools; and Aristotle was scarcely noticed: but in this period he supplanted his rival so completely, that Platonism was in its turn neglected and forgotten. The philosophy of Aristotle, thus adapted to the doctrines of Christianity, was called scholastic. At first it was very limited; being confined to a sort of logic termed Dialectic, and a singular sort of metaphysic; a mere tissue of abstract ideas, useless distinctions, and disputes about words. M. MEUSEL refers the reader, who wishes to have a complete idea of the scholastic philosophers, to Launoi, De varia Aristotelis fortuna; Tribbechovias De doctoribus sholasticis; Jonsius De Historiâ Peripateticâ ; Tiedemann's Spirit of speculative Philosophy; and Meiners De

This book is in German. See M. Rev. Appendixes to Vols, 20, 21. and 24. N. S.

Nominalium et Realium initu atque progressu, published in the Göttingen Transactions, 1793, 1794.

The principal scholastics of this period were Heldebert, Roscelinus, the famous Abélard, Hugo de S. Victore, Pullenus, or Pullein, John of Salisbury, Alexander Hales called the irrefragable Doctor, Albert the great, Robert Grossetête, Bonaventure, Thomas Aquinas, (called the Angel of the schools, or the Angelical Doctor,) Raymond Lulli, Duns Scotus, Durandus,, Occam, Walther Burleigh, Burridan, Marsilius Von-Ingen, the celebrated Gerson, Ganifort, and Gabriel Biel.-The Arabs had their Wasel Ebn-Ata, Ibn-Baja, Algazel, Abujarfar, and Averrhoës.-Among the degenerate Greeks, we find Barlaam and Gemistus Pletho.

State of the Belles-lettres, &c.-Poetry, during this period, seems to have flourished chiefly among the Arabs and Persians. The most remarkable of the Arabian poets are Thograi, Hariri, and Al-Meidani; of the Persic, Ferdusi, Anweri, Sadi, and Hafez, called (not improperly) the Persian Horace.-Of the Greek poets, the author mentions only Theodorus Prodromus, Tzetzes, and Planudes. In the west, this period gave birth to the Provençal poesy, and to rhime. The poets were called Trovatori, or Troubadours; i. e. finders; who flourished principally in Italy, Spain, and the south of France. For their history the curious reader is referred to Tiraboschi, Millot, and Antonio Sanchez.-The author forgets not, the minstrels of Great Britain. William of Glocester wrote a chronicle in rhime, as early as 1280:-but our readers will learn more on this head from Percy and Warton than can be obtained from any foreigner.-M. MEUSEL gives a long account of the German and Scandinavian poets; to which we must refer our readers. We also pass over the section on the Italian poets, from Guinicelli to Boccacio; both because their history is well known in this country, and because this author's account of them is imperfect.

Statistics. On this subject, M. MEUSEL says very little; and that little is of small importance.

State of Physics.-Albert the Great is the only writer of note, on this subject. Some of his works have been published, but a complete edition is yet wanting; and we are informed, by a German correspondent, that such an one is in contemplation..

State of Medicine. The principal advancement of medical science in this period was derived from the study of anatomy; the father of which was Mondini de' Luzzi, professor at Bologna, in 1315. His work on this subject was first published at Lyons in 1551.-The principal physicians of this period

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were

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were Arabians; namely Abulcasis, Aben-Zohar, Eben-Beither, and Averrhcës.-Among the Greeks, Actuarius, and Demetrius Pepagomenus. In the west, Roger of Parma, William of Saliceto, Lanfranc of Milan, Thaddeus of Florence, Arnoldus of Villa-nova, Torrigiano Rustichelli, Mundini, Simon de Cordo, Palvaticus of Mantua, and Savonarola. All these were Italians. From them, the French and other European nations borrowed the little which they knew.

State of Jurisprudence.-The principal Greek civilian of this period was Hermenopolus of Constantinople; and the princi pal canonists were Zonaras, and Balsamon. The most cele brated jurists of the west were Irnerius of Bologna, Bulgarus, (called Golden-mouth,) his rival Martinus Gosianus, Portius Azzo, the two Accursii, and Ardizzone--all Italians. They were termed Glossatores, and were followed by the Commenta tores, the chief of whom was Bartolus; whose works in eleven vols. in folio were published at Venice in 1615. His disciple Baldus wrote comments on the Digests, published in an equal number of volumes at Venice in 1616.-The canon-law was reduced by Gratian to a system, commonly called Cadex Decretorum; which produced a number of commentators: of whom the most renowned were Marianus Socinus, and Raymond de Pegnafort.-France and Germany followed, in general, the Roman jurisprudence; with some local rights and privileges of their own. In England, this period gave birth to the famous Magna-charta; the great bulwark of its national freedom to the present day.

State of Theology.-During the first part of this period, Theology was a jargon of metaphysical subtleties; an uncouth medley of articles of faith and peripatetic reveries:-but, in the 12th century, the famous monk of Clairvaux, St. Bernard, gave a new turn to the science by large quotations from the scripture, which he employed with wonderful ease, and with great effect. Some of his homilies are a mere tissue of scripture texts, but so well put together as to appear one natural series. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the writings of Wick. liff and Huss gave a new shape to Divinity, and paved the way for the Reformation.

Of the scripture-commentators of this period, the principal were De Lyra, Rupertus, Hugo of St. Victor, and Tostatus.The dogmatists were Hildebert, Abelard, Bernard, Lombard, (or the Master of Sentences,) Albert the Great, Bonaventure, and Thomas Aquinas: who have already been mentioned under the head of Philosophy.-Of polemic divines, we find among the Greeks Cantacuzenus, Theophanes, and Simeon of Thessalonica:-in the west, Ficinus, Raymond of Pegnafort, Savonarola, Moneta,

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Moneta, and Raymond Martini, whose work against the Jews is well known. To these we must add the celebrated production of Aquinas, called Summa, contra Gentiles.-Moral theology was blended with the dogmatic, and treated by the same authors; more particularly by the Master of Sentences and Aquinas: from whom, chiefly, Vincent of Beauvais compiled his great Speculum Morale, published at Douay in 4 vols. fol. 1624.

To this period we owe the origin of Mystic Divinity, in the west at least; where the Pseudo-Dionysius (called the Areopagite) had now made his appearance, and was embraced with eagerness by the visionaries of the time; and whose doctrines were particularly propagated by the works of Thaulerus. In this class, in some respects, may be ranked the famous book De Imitatione Christi, by A-Kempis: which has been as oftenedited, and translated into as many languages, perhaps, as even the Holy Bible itself. It is indeed a wonderful composition, and devoid of almost all the extravagant absurdities which disgrace most other mystical writings. We have often read it with pleasure, and always with profit.-Preaching was revived towards the end of this period, principally by the Dominicans; who were hence called Fratres Predicatores, or preaching Friars. The most celebrated preachers were Jerom Savonarola, and Kaiserberg of Strasburg.

The last period of M. MEUSEL'S work occupies a volume by itself: but, as the history of the literature of that period is well known, we shall endeavour to condense it into one other article.

ART. XIV. Les Rudimens de l'Histoire, &c.; i. e. The Rudiments of History, or a general and particular Sketch of the most celebrated antient and modern Nations, intended as an Introduction to the History of them; followed by a brief Account of those Books in which History should be studied in all its Details. By Louis DOMAIRON, Professor of Belles Lettres in the Military School at Paris. 4 Vols. 12mo. Paris. 1801. Imported by De Boffe, London. Price 145. sewed.

HIS work appears to be executed on a plan extremely well calculated to convey a general idea of history, by exhibiting the great and principal events which have taken place among the different people of the world, in a clear and well contrived arrangement; which neither confounds the understanding by the greatness and comprehension of its parts, nor distracts it by the multitude and minuteness of its subdivisions, In order to convey to our readers some idea of the author's plan, we present them with a short extract :

The