corrupted by local superstitions, and with ritual observances, which in effect confess the polytheism they have renounced. The dogmatic simplicity of the faith of Islám has not limited the ingenuity of schismatic reformers. In India the most prominent disagreement is that which separates the Sunni and the Shiah sects. They differ as to the authority of certain commentaries on the Korán; but the question on which their feelings are most deeply divided is the legality of the Prophet's three immediate successors. Abu Bakr, Umar and Usman were elected by their followers, in disregard of the claims which Ali might advance as being the son-in-law and heir of Mohammed. Ali succeeded to the fourth vacancy; but his son, Hussain, was killed by seceders who forgot the sanctity of the Prophet's blood. The Shiahs hold that Ali was Mohammed's first legal successor, and that Hussain died in the glory of martyrdom. His tomb is with them a place of pilgrimage; and each year they celebrate his death by mourning processions. The sect has its headquarters in Persia, and may, indeed, be regarded as a Persian dissent from a religion of Arabs: its strongholds in India are the cities of Lucknow and Hyderabad. But, wherever there are Mohammedans, there are annual celebrations of the death of Hussain; and models of his shrine -prettily constructed of paper and tinsel-are carried in procession, and are finally thrown into a river or pond. There is loud lamentation, but also music and dancing; and Sunnis (as well as low-caste Hindus) ignore the meaning of the festival that they may share its excitements. The Mohammedan marriage is a civil ceremony-a contract entered into before a notary. Divorce is recognised and needs little formality. But the husband is obliged to pay over the dowry, the settlement of which is part of the marriage contract. So safeguarded, marriages RELIGION AND CHARACTER are in fact seldom annulled. The dead are not cremated, but are buried in the hopes of a personal resurrection. India affords an interesting study to those who would search religious beliefs for the origin of so-called "national " characteristics. Two powerful religions exist side by side, professed by communities that are in great measure related by descent. Intellectually the Hindus have been by far the most progressive: they have eagerly pursued Western literature and science; class-rooms and examination rooms are crowded with their boys, and their foremost men attain a high European standard in knowledge and eloquence. To the Mohammedans, Western learning has been far less attractive; until recently they have indeed held back from acquiring it, and their ignorance of English has cost them dearly in the loss of appointments in the superior service of the Government. This difference may perhaps be ascribed to the effects of a speculative and of a dogmatic religion. Hinduism is tolerant of opinions-indeed, careless of belief—so long as there is due regard of ceremonial observances. Mohammedanism is the reverse-rigid in its doctrinal tenets, suspicious of anything which may tend to undermine them. This rigidity also affects its sentiments, and such feelings as loyalty, generosity and gratitude are accepted without question as laudable guides of conduct. To the Hindu mind it appears that motives, however excellent in themselves, may quite legitimately be analysed before they are actually followed. The obligation of a vow cannot be evaded. But, when unfettered in this way, the attachments of man may reasonably be guided by the calculations of his intellect. Here then we seem able to trace differences of character to differences of religion. But this clue does not assist to account for the character of the Parsis. They are a peculiar people, distinguished by their commercial and industrial capacity; they have not only accepted but have assimilated Western standards. In their religion there appears nothing to foster these aptitudes. Their distinctive progressiveness must, apparently, be ascribed to their blood; and they have certainly taken care to preserve any racial peculiarities they may possess, for they admit no converts, and marry only amongst themselves. Why, then, do they differ so widely from their kinsmen who remained in Persia and were converted to Islám? An Indian environment has to them, apparently, been a developing force. CHAPTER X EDUCATION AND ITS EFFECTS MANY and varied are the means of grace which religion has offered for the improvement of mankind: it is now fashionable to believe that education may be substituted for them all, and may even be trusted-so far go enthusiasts to eradicate the strongest peculiarities of racial or local character. Yet it may, perhaps, be surmised, from the variety of the theories which educationalists discuss, that they are not quite satisfied with the practice of any of them. In India, English literature has been substituted for Oriental literature without in any way anglicising the ideas of the students; science has been tried in the place of literature in the hope that it would give accuracy to minds that are satisfied by indeterminate conceptions; book-work has been relieved by hand and eye-training and the cult of gymnastics; and at present great hopes are entertained of the withdrawal of students from the influences of their homes and their subjection to boarding-house-or hostel-discipline. This idea may be fruitful indeed, since it would modify very drastically the student's environment; and, beyond doubt, a change of circumstances affects character more deeply than does the amassing of knowledge. No amount of study will work such a regeneration in an English labourer or artisan as comes about after a short residence in Canada. And such alterations as have occurred in Indian ideas and habits are due very largely to the experience young Indians have gathered in Europe and America. ENGLISH EDUCATION India owes her introduction to English literature, not to the British Government, but to Christian missionaries. In the early days of British rule the State found that it responded most closely to the wishes of the people by fostering Oriental studies in Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian. At the beginning of last century English schools were established in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras by missionary enterprise which will always be associated with the names of Martyn, Carey and Duff. These institutions proved useful to the Government in providing it with subordinate officials who could work in English; and official authority soon lost its suspicions and was ready to assist them. A generation later-in 1837-moved in great measure by the advocacy of Lord Macaulay (who was at the time a member of the Viceroy's Council), the Government of India decided to substitute English for Oriental studies as the instrument for higher education. This momentous conclusion had the effect of anglicising, not only high schools and colleges, but the official machinery of administration. It has led to the banishment of the vernaculars from public offices; and at the present day, in the more advanced provinces, you will hardly find a clerkabove the humblest position-who does not transact his duties in English. For some years, however, the new learning was but moderately attractive. Its popularity amongst the Hindus dates from the establishment of examining universities which could attest the proficiency of students in various grades of learning by the grant of certificates, diplomas and degrees. Such universities were founded at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1867; at Allahabad in 1870, and at Lahore in 1878. The examination hall offered an exciting method of achieving distinction. Moreover, the examinations were consecrated by the State as avenues to the public service, certificates of having matriculated, having passed the intermediate examination, or having graduated, being accepted as qualifying for different grades of Government employ. |