proposition. Moreover, in this connection it is well to point out that a speaker should always have a definite topic for consideration. Nothing is more apt to result in ineffective preparation than a vague idea as to what one is going to talk about. A person who proposes to discuss "something touching upon labor unions, international arbitration and the minimum wage law" faces an enormous task of investigation-a task which he will probably leave undone. Even any one part of the above subject would be rather broad and indefinite for the unpracticed speaker. Much more adaptable to satisfactory preparation are such clearly defined topics as, "The Aims of Labor Unions," "The Shortcomings of Labor Unions," "The Difficulties of International Arbitration," "What International Arbitration Has Accomplished," "Why We Need a Federal Minimum Wage Law," etc.

But let us suppose that a person has chosen a definite topic and that he knows the great danger of lack of preparation. Here is a critical juncture at which speakers sometimes weaken, thereby nurturing the feeling of dread. The weakness lies chiefly in one or more of the following attitudes: laziness, a forlorn hope of sudden inspiration or of picking up material from other speakers, and ignorance of how to prepare. The first two of these may be dismissed with a brief comment.

Laziness is absolutely inadmissible in the lexicon of the public speaker. If he knows his subjectmatter, well and good; if not, he must get it. As for borrowing, or, better, stealing from fellowspeakers on a program, the result can hardly be expected to be other than a thing of shreds and patches. Ignorance of how to prepare properly is a really excusable cause for dread of speaking in public and will require careful consideration in a later chapter.

C. SUMMARY

In the foregoing pages we have noted that the majority of people dread to speak in public. This feeling is partly due to an expectation of "stagefright," which can be largely overcome by not brooding over the supposedly terrifying occasion; by realizing that an audience is ordinarily composed of sympathetic and well-disposed persons; and by a summoning of courage for the first few attempts, which serve to accustom a speaker to the situation. Another cause of dread, a faulty idea of the speaker's task, is removed when the speaker realizes that he is not expected, nor desired, to follow the style of the masters of oratory, but merely to talk in a straightforward and interesting conversational manner. The last and most important source of dread is obviated by avoiding poor preparation, which is usually due

to laziness, dependence upon inspiration or borrowing, or ignorance of how to prepare. Before considering the specific steps which are to be taken in preparing for an address it is desirable to get a thorough understanding of the purposes and methods which constitute the foundation of speech making.

CHAPTER II

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF A SPEECH

A. THE DIVISIONS OF A SPEECH

The person who wishes to acquit himself creditably and to influence his hearers in modern speaking, whether for social, professional or business reasons, may not be particularly interested in the names which the Greeks and Romans gave to their divisions of an oration. And it does seem rather immaterial except for historical purposes. It is, however, desirable to know what successful speakers of to-day aim to do in beginning an address, in developing it, and closing it. Furthermore, it will be helpful to determine, as far as possible, what means they use to realize their aims. With these ends in view we shall, for convenience in discussion, divide the speech into the well-known introduction, development or body and conclusion.

B. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE INTRODUCTION

I. Gaining the Attention

The average audience to which a speaker addresses himself has many and varied interests

as it awaits the opening words. A sick child, a falling stock-market, an impending lawsuit, an acrobatic fly on a bald head in the next row-any number of things have already set up counterattractions before the speaker begins. With his opening words the speaker interrupts the progress of these various contemplations, and in the usual settling that heralds the salutation he has the momentary attention of the audience by virtue of the situation itself. The dullest speaker imaginable will get the advantage of this sudden interruption of the various trains of thought. A preoccupied pedestrian is likely to glance upward when a shadow crosses his path. Seeing only a crow he will instantly revert to his interrupted thoughts, but if he sees an aeroplane his attention is arrested. Similarly, the critical moment in the opening of a speech is not at the outset, but immediately afterward. It is even possible that the first three or four sentences may not be distinctly heard amid the rustle of the settling process. But these opening sentences should, of course, be in preparation for that critical moment at which the attention must be arrested.

II. Arousing the Interest

Having caught the attention, the speaker next aims to arouse the interest of the audience before attention lapses. When the above-mentioned