1. JULIUS CÆSAR (B.C. 55-54).

Cæsar's Commentaries hold high rank in a small and remarkable class of literature-works written by generals, statesmen and other leaders about themselves. As a rule, the great men of action have been unable to produce histories, or else have failed to find leisure for such employment. Cæsar alone among the three or four most famous conquerors has left a systematic account of his campaigns, and we even owe the Gallic War in part to accident. Some of his enemies, trying to make capital for the Roman Senate, attacked him on the ground that he had raised armies and conquered provinces without receiving orders to do so. He put his answer into the form of a historical treatise which was thus provoked by circumstances, rather than written for the author's amusement or for the benefit of posterity. It appeared in 51 B.C., three years after his second expedition to Britain. With regard to information about the island, he had much less to depend on than in the case of Gaul, which he had both explored and subdued. Still, first impressions are worth preserving, and when the pioneer is a man of Cæsar's stamp, they become invaluable.

SOURCE.-De Bello Gallico. Julius Cæsar (B.C. 100?-44).

Book V.,

chaps. xii.-xiv. Trans. (with slight changes) W. Duncan. London, 1832.

The inland parts of Britain are inhabited by those whom fame reports to be natives of the soil. The sea coast is peopled with Belgians, drawn thither by the love of war and plunder. These last, passing over from different parts, and settling in the country, still retain the names of the several states whence they are descended. The island is well peopled, full of houses, built after the manner of the Gauls, and abounds in cattle. They use brass money and iron rings a certain weight. The

A

provinces remote from the sea produce tin, and those on the coast iron; but the latter in no great quantity. Their brass is all imported. All kinds of wood grow here the same as in Gaul, except the fir and beech tree. They think it unlawful to feed on hares, pullets or geese; yet they breed them up for their diversion and pleasure. The climate is more temperate than in Gaul, and the cold less intense. The island is triangular, one of its sides facing Gaul. The extremity towards Kent, whence is the nearest passage to Gaul, lies eastward; the other stretches south-west. This side extends about 500 miles. Another side looks towards Spain, westward.1 Over against this lies Ireland, an island esteemed not above half as large as Britain, and separated from it by an interval equal to that between Britain and Gaul. In this interval lies the isle of Mona,2 besides several other lesser islands, of which some write that in the time of the winter solstice they have night for thirty days together. We could make out nothing of this on inquiry; only discovered by means of hour-glasses that the nights were shorter than in Gaul. The length of this side is computed at 700 miles. The last side faces the north-east, and is fronted by no part of the continent, only towards one of its extremities it seems to eye chiefly the German coast. It is thought to extend in length about 800 miles. Thus the whole island takes in a circuit of 2000 miles. The inhabitants of Kent, which lies wholly on the sea coast, are the most civilised of all the Britons, and differ but little in their manner from the Gauls. The greater part of those within the country never sow their lands, but live on flesh and milk, and go clad in skins. All the Britons in general paint themselves with woad, which gives a bluish cast to the skin, and makes them look dreadful in battle. They are long-haired, and shave all the rest of the body except the head and upper lip.

2. TACITUS ON THE GEOGRAPHY AND INHABITANTS OF

BRITAIN (A.D. 78-85).

Cornelius Tacitus, the foremost of Roman historians, was brought into contact with Britain by marriage with a daughter of Julius Agricola. His command of style and his skill in portraying character are so well known that it is needless either to praise or to discuss them here. He has sketched his father*See No. 2, note 2. 2 Anglesey,

in-law's life in a piece of superb biography which deals very largely with Britain, since that was the scene of Agricola's exploits. One hundred and thirty-three years after Cæsar's coming more than half of it was independent of Roman control. The southern part had been occupied and military camps created, but beyond Humber the natives rarely, if ever, saw a tax-gatherer. Agricola's arrival in 78 A.D. brought a strong man and a forward policy into play. Before seven years were over he broke the spirit of resistance, and by establishing the Roman system of provincial government would have secured what he had won, but for Domitian's jealousy, which caused his recall. It will be observed that Tacitus, besides having the advantage of Cæsar in extent of knowledge, takes the tone of a critical or scientific inquirer.

SOURCE.-Vita Agricola. Cornelius Tacitus (A.D. 52 ?-117 ?). Chaps. x.-xiii. Trans. Church and Brodribb. London, 1886.

The geography and inhabitants of Britain, already described by many writers, I will speak of, not that my research and ability may be compared with theirs, but because the country was then for the first time thoroughly subdued. And so matters, which as being still not accurately known my predecessors embellished with their eloquence, shall now be related on the evidence of facts.

Britain, the largest of the islands which Roman geography includes, is so situated that it faces Germany on the east, Spain on the west,2 on the south it is even within sight of Gaul, its northern extremities, which have no shores opposite to them, are beaten by the waves of a vast, open sea. The form of the entire country has been compared by Livy and Fabius Rusticus, the most graphic among ancient and modern historians, to an oblong shield or battle-axe. And this, no doubt, is its shape without Caledonia, so that it has become the popular description

1 Under Agricola.

2 Cæsar and Tacitus agree in this mistake. "It seems that Tacitus (in common with other writers) believed both Spain and Germany to extend much further to the north than they actually do. On this supposition his meaning in this sentence would be that Britain lies opposite to Spain on the west, to Germany on the east, and to Gaul on the south. . . . It will be remembered that Tacitus included Scandinavia in what he called Germany."-Church and Brodribb.

of the whole island. There is, however, a large and irregular tract of land which juts out from its furthest shores, tapering off in a wedge-like form. Round these coasts of remotest ocean the Roman fleet then for the first time sailed, ascertained that Britain is an island, and simultaneously discovered and conquered what are called the Orcades,1 islands hitherto unknown. Thule 2 too was descried in the distance, which as yet had been hidden by the snows of winter. Those waters, they say, are sluggish, and yield with difficulty to the oar, and are not even raised by the wind as other seas. The reason, I suppose, is that lands and mountains, which are the cause and origin of storms, are here comparatively rare, and also that the vast depths of that unbroken expanse are more slowly set in motion. But to investigate the nature of the ocean and the tides is no part of the present work, and many writers have discussed the subject, I would simply add that nowhere has the sea a wider dominion, that it does not merely flow and ebb within the limits of the shore, but penetrates and winds far inland, and finds a home among hills and mountains as though in its own domain.

Who were the original inhabitants of Britain, whether they were indigenous or foreign, is, as usual among barbarians, little known. Their physical characteristics are various, and hence conclusions may be drawn. The red hair and large limbs of the inhabitants of Caledonia point clearly to a German origin. The dark complexion of the Silures, their usually curly hair, and the fact that Spain is the opposite shore to them, are an evidence that Iberians of a former date crossed over and occupied these parts. Those who are nearest to the Gauls are also like them, either from the permanent influence of original descent, or, because in countries which run out so far to meet each other, climate has produced similar physical qualities. But a general survey inclines me to believe that the Gauls established themselves in an island so near to them. Their religious belief may be traced in the strongly-marked British superstition. The language differs but little; there is the same boldness in challenging danger, and, when it is near, the same timidity in shrinking from it. The Britons, however, exhibit more spirit, as being a people whom a long peace has not yet enervated. Indeed we have understood that even the

1 Orkneys.

2" Probably not Iceland, but Mainland, the chief of the Shetlands." -Church and Brodribb.

Gauls were once renowned in war; but, after a while, sloth following on ease invaded them, and they lost their courage along with their freedom. This too has happened to the long conquered tribes of Britain; the rest are still what the Gauls

once were.

Their strength is in infantry. Some tribes fight also with the chariot. The higher in rank is the charioteer; the dependents fight. They were once ruled by kings, but are now divided under chieftains into factions and parties. Our greatest advantage in coping with tribes so powerful is that they do not act in concert. Seldom is it that two or three states meet together to ward off a common danger. Thus, while they fight singly all are conquered.

Their sky is obscured by continual rain and cloud. Severity of cold is unknown. The days exceed in length those of our part of the world; the nights are bright, and in the extreme north so short that between sunlight and dawn you can perceive but a slight distinction. It is said that, if there are no clouds in the way, the spendour of the sun can be seen throughout the night, and that he does not rise and set but only crosses the heavens.

With the exception of the olive and vine and plants which usually grow in warmer climates, the soil will yield, and even fruitfully, all ordinary produce. It ripens indeed slowly, but is of rapid growth, the cause in each case being the same, namely, the excessive moisture of the soil and of the atmosphere. Britain contains gold and silver and other metals, as the prize of conquest. The ocean, too, produces pearls, but of a dusky and bluish hue. Some think that those who collect them have not the requisite skill, as in the Red Sea the living and breathing pearl is torn from the rocks, while in Britain they are gathered just as they are thrown up. I could myself more readily believe that the natural properties of the pearls are in fault than our keenness for gain.

The Britains themselves bear cheerfully the conscription, the taxes, and the other burdens imposed on them by the Empire if there be no oppression. Of this they are impatient; they are reduced to subjection, not as yet to slavery. To proceed, the deified Julius, the very first Roman who entered Britain with an army, though by a successful engagement he struck terror into the inhabitants and gained possession of the coast, must be regarded as having indicated rather than transmitted the acquisition to future generations. Then the civil wars, and the arms of our leaders were turned against their