THE FOLK EPIC: BEOWULF An epic is a long narrative poem treating of great actions, with the characters well defined. When traditions which have been in circulation among a nation, often for a long time, in ballads and lays, are gathered together and crystallized into a great narrative poem by some poet or succession of poets, we have the "folk epic" or "epic of growth." Such are the Iliad, the Niebelungen Lied, and Beowulf. In an epic of this sort it is generally desirable that the effect of unity be achieved by confining the action to one great event and the circumstances connected with it. In Beowulf, however, the story falls into two distinct parts: (1) Beowulf's fights with Grendel and Grendel's mother, and (2) his struggle long afterwards with the dragon. An interval of fifty years separates the two actions, but they are held together by the character of the hero, whose life as a whole is of such interest that the reader passes from one adventure to the other without feeling any lack of continuity. The theme of the poem is of Scandinavian origin and the setting is Scandinavian. Beowulf is of the Geats, a tribe settled in what is now southern Sweden, and comes to the royal court of Denmark to assist King Hrothgar against his mysterious foe. Allusion to events which took place in Scandinavian countries between 450 and 530 make it almost certain that the traditions found in the poem were current among the Angles on the continent and were brought to England at the time of their migration thither in the sixth century. The poem was composed between 700 and 750 A.D., probably in the northern part of England. The manuscript in which it is preserved dates from about the year 1000. The original is in four-stress, alliterative verse. Since Beowulf was written at such a time-only one hundred and fifty years after the introduction of Christianity into the island-it is not strange that pagan beliefs and Christian allusions jostle each other in a way that strikes the casual reader as incongruous. But the Christian element is an inseparable part of the poem, and the references reveal just that simple conception which a pagan people might have of a belief that had recently broken in on their established philosophy of life without by any means destroying it. Beowulf is the greatest work in Old English literature. It is a splendid story of adventure, an invaluable picture of Anglo-Saxon life, and a fitting embodiment of the ideals of valor and honor, unflinching devotion to duty and unfailing loyalty between men, which are so fine a part of Old English life. 3 Lo, we have heard of the glory in days of old of the Spear-Danes, of the kings. of the people, how the athelings did deeds. of valor! Oft Scyld Scefing reft bands of hostile folk, many a tribe, of their seats in the mead-hall, terrified earls, after he was first found destitute. Yet for all that, he lived to know consolation, prospered on earth and grew rich in honors, till each of his neighbors over the whale-road1 must obey him and pay him tribute. That was a good king! To him thereafter a son was born, young in the house, whom God sent as a help to the people; He knew the dire distress that erst they had suffered, kingless a long while. Therefore the Lord of Life, Heaven's Ruler, gave him honor on earth: Beowulf2 was renowned-his fame leaped far-Scyld's son in Scedeland. In such a way shall a young man bring it a 1 The whale-road is the sea. Old English poetry is characterized by bold metaphors and a certain indirect way of saying things that one must become accustomed to. The "product of files" is a sword, the "play of swords" a battle, the "battle seat" saddle, and the "protector of earls" is the king. After a very little reading these figures cause no trouble. One other feature of Old English poetry is still noticeable in a translation. This is a certain parallelism of thought, to which the stichic character of the verse especially lends itself, and a repetition that results in a heaping up of synonyms and appositional elements until often they appear awkward to the modern reader. This qual ity of the style is better adapted to slow chanting aloud than to our modern method of rapid reading with the eye alone. 2 Not the hero of the poem, who was Beowulf of the Geats. about by kindness, by gifts of treasure from his father's store, that in his age willing companions may stand by him, his people serve him, when war comes. Among all nations a man shall surely thrive by praiseworthy deeds. Then at the appointed time Scyld, full of might, went into the Lord's keeping. They bore him, his own dear companions, to the sea's waters, as he himself bade while this friend of the Scyldings still had the power of words. The beloved prince had ruled long. There in harbor stood the ring-prowed ship, ice-covered and eager to go, a hero's boat. They laid then their dear lord, giver of rings, in the bosom of the ship, the glorious one beside the mast. From afar were brought many treasures and rich trappings. Never heard I of a ship fitted out more nobly with armor and weapons of war, swords and byrnies; on his breast lay heaped-up treasures that should go with him far into the flood's keeping. No less did they furnish him with gifts. and folk-hoardings, than did those who at his birth sent him forth alone, a child over the waves. And besides, they set up a golden banner high above his head, let the waters bear him, gave him up to the sea. Theirs was a sorrowful heart, a mournful mood. In truth, men cannot say -rulers in hall, heroes under heavenwho received that burden. I THE BUILDING OF HEOROT. GRENDEL'S HATRED Long ruled, then, in the palace Beowulf of the Scyldings, beloved king of the folk, famous among nations-his father had passed hence, the lord from his homeuntil in time the mighty Healfdene was born to him. He ruled the people as long |