CHAPTER V.

WORKS ON CHRISTIAN ETHICS.

Introductory Observations-Systematic Theology-The Fathers-Schoolmen -Casuists-Reformers-Calvin's Institutions-Works of Perkins-Archbishop Usher's System-Leigh's Body of Divinity-Baxter's 'Christian Directory'-Intended as the Second Part of his Methodus '-His own Account of it-Remarks on the Arrangement-Opposed to the Politics of Hooker-Progress of the Doctrine of Passive Obedience in EnglandCharacter of the Directory'-Compared with the Ductor Dubitantium of Taylor- The Reformed Pastor' Reasons for Ministerial Plainness' -Poor Man's Family Book'-' The Catechising of Families'' The Mother's Catechism'' Sheets for the Poor and the Afflicted'' Directions to Justices of the Peace'' How to do Good to Many'- Counsels to Young Men''The Divine Appointment of the Lord's Day'-Concluding Remarks.

If obedience to the will of God be the end and design of all religion, it ought to occupy a chief part of our attention in every discussion of its nature. However difficult it may be to teach men some of the doctrines of religion, the most formidable difficulties really belong to its practice. This arises not from the obscurity which attaches to what God requires, but from the backwardness of man to comply with the requisition. His natural inclinations are all enlisted on the side of disobedience, or, at least, of aversion to a full conformity of disposition to the mind of God. Hence if the vestige of a doubt rests on any divine precept, or inhibition, to which it may be felt inconvenient or undesirable to render positive compliance, advantage is sure to be taken of that doubt. Every subterfuge or excuse which ingenuity can devise, will be resorted to in order to quiet conscience, or to justify to others the conduct which is pursued,

The opportunities and means of practising this species of evasion are very considerable. The unavoidable imperfection and ambiguity of human language, of which even a divine revelation in that language is not altogether divested; the

necessary exceptions belonging to many of the general laws of God, with the great variety of circumstances into which men are thrown, presenting temptations to avail themselves of supposed exceptions in their favour; these, together with the deceitfulness of the human heart, are among the things which create difficulty to the Christian moralist, and have furnished abundant employment to the casuistical divine.

Were it not for the mistake which extensively prevails among mankind, that their interests and those of the law of God are not the same, the difficulty of communicating instruction on religion would not be very formidable. This fatal error, however, is mixed up with all our natural reasonings, and gives a wrong direction or bias to our every thought and feeling. The Creator of the universe is regarded with jealousy and suspicion by his own creature. The principles of his moral administration are supposed to concern rather his own glory, than the happiness of the universe. His laws are pronounced alike arbitrary and severe, if not positively unjust. If the reason of some of them is not fully stated, that concealment is regarded as a sufficient apology for neglect or noncompliance: where the reason is stated, it is not always approved; being perhaps regarded as proceeding from arbitrary power, rather than arising from justice and goodness.

Where such a state of mind prevails, it is at once obvious that we have to do, not with the understanding so much as with the disposition. The darkness of the mind is not mere intellectual ignorance; which an adequate process of instruction could remove. The understanding is indeed dark, but it arises from

an alienation of the life from God." There is ignorance, it is true, but it consists in what the Scriptures emphatically call "blindness of heart." Hence the influence which Christ himself ascribes to inclination in the reception of the will of God: "If any man be inclined to do the will of God, he shall know of the doctrine whether it be of God;" and hence arises the absolute necessity of that divine teaching which the Scriptures invariably represent as lying at the foundation of ail enlightened and acceptable obedienee to the Most High.

The inspired writers, accordingly, never confine their instructions to the understanding, or regard the reception and influence of Christianity as if they merely resulted from an intellectual process. They do not record their doctrines in creeds, or deliver their precepts in formal summaries. They communicate

both chiefly in the form of addresses to the conscience and to the heart, or in reasonings which, while they are powerfully calculated to enlighten and convince the understanding, are no less fitted to engage the warmest feelings of the soul in favour of obedience to Him, whose highest moral glory is summed up in the attribute of LOVE.

This plan has not been followed by the generality of writers on systematic theology. The theory and practice of religion have been unwisely separated from each other to the injury of both. Thus, what may be regarded as speculative, has been deprived of its most powerful recommendation; and what is practical, has been divested of its living principle. The one is presented as soul without body, the other as body without spirit. In the former, religion is generalised into abstract principles; in the latter, it is shrivelled into outward forms, and reduced to a joyless submission.

It cannot be denied, however, that there are some advantages connected with the separate discussion of these subjects, when properly conducted. This more especially belongs to the press than to the pulpit. In the latter, they ought never to be disjoined. It is not the place for abstract, philosophical disquisition; but for the evangelical enforcement of the truths and duties of Christianity. It is easier to guard against misapprehensions in a written work than in oral discourse: many things can be conveniently and appropriately discussed in books, which would be altogether unsuitable as topics for public preaching.

It would be vain to look for much of systematic theology in the fathers or early writers of the Christian church. They lived too near the period of the Apostles, to feel the necessity or importance of this kind of writing. Nor were their circumstances at all favourable to it. Most of them were incapable of any thing very profound; the body of the people were of the same description; and both teachers and taught were so much conversant with a state of suffering, as to have scarcely either time or inclination for any thing but what bore immediately on the practice or the consolations of the Gospel. Origen and Cyril of Jerusalem were the first among the Greeks who did any thing in this way. The former, in his work, πepì àpxã»,—or Four Books concerning Principles, while he gives some information, astounds us with allegories and absurdities; the latter, in his Catechetical Discourses,' which were written in his youth, conveys

some useful instruction in a less objectionable manner. Augustine, in his Enchiridion, or Treatise on Faith, Hope, and Charity,' presents a kind of system, while, in some of his other writings, he discusses many of those questions, which, at a future period, were reduced into more regular form, and occasioned interminable disputes.

It was in the middle ages, that Scholastic Theology, combined into regular system the principles and duties of religion; but unfortunately it presented the subject in a shape, not only opposed to sound philosophy, and repugnant to all correct taste; but was calculated to do the most serious injury to religion. The works of Abelard, Lombard, Aquinas, and the other angelical, or seraphic, doctors of the dark ages, afford proofs of no inconsiderable talent, especially in dialectics; but unfortunately it was employed rather to bewilder the mind than to aid the discovery of truth. The metaphysics of Plato, the logic of Aristotle, and the corrupt theology of the church of Rome, were amalgamated into one crude incoherent mass of unintelligible dogmas, which was honoured with the title of the orthodox faith; and the slightest departure from which was deemed a pernicious heresy."

The Romish Casuists may be considered as succeeding the scholastic writers, and distinct from them. They occupied themselves not so much with the metaphysics of doctrine as with the metaphysics of practice. Conscience was professedly the chief object of their attention; and the canon law, with the opinions of the fathers, and the decrees of councils and popes, was the rule by which they directed it. Auricular confession naturally gendered this description of writers. It laid open the interior of man to his fellow man to an improper extent; it created a prurient curiosity, and often called forth the utmost effort of human ingenuity in solving real or pretended difficulties; in finding consolation for the wounded conscience, or apologies for the hardened sinner. To assist the junior priesthood in trafficking advantageously with the eternal interests of men, and to render them skilful in all manner of devices for keeping the conscience under subjection to papal authority, were the great objects of the Romish Casuists. Their works are storehouses of logical subtleties, and magazines of moral combustibles sufficient to distract and destroy the universe. Such are the writings of Sanchez, Suarez, Escobar, and others of the same school.

See Morell's Elements,' &c. P. 295.

This style of writing in the department of systematic and casuistic theology among the Romanists, gave place to a simpler and more practical mode of treating such subjects, under the denomination of the "Common Places" and theological counsels of the reformers. Disgusted with the metaphysical absurdities and logomachy of the schoolmen, Melancthon, Luther, and others, produced compendiums, or brief systems, of religion, in which, arranged under various heads, the principal articles of Christian faith and duty were plainly stated. The Confessions of the reformed churches necessarily assumed a systematic form, and expositions, or commentaries on them, brought the doctrines and duties of religion in regular digests before the people of every country in which they were adopted: In most of these productions, while both occupy one book, the credenda and the agenda, are always treated distinctly.

In Systematic Theology, the Institutions of Calvin, though not the first in the order of time, carried off the palm from all its predecessors, and has not yet been surpassed by any competitor. Diversity of opinion may exist respecting some of the positions of the Genevese reformer, and even among those who hold his general views of Christian doctrine, there may not be an entire concurrence in every sentiment or expression; but while profound piety, masculine energy of mind, acuteness and strength of argument, perspicuity of statement, and purity of language, continue to be respected among men, the Christian Institutes' of John Calvin will secure for their author immortal honour.

Our own Reformers did not contribute much in this department, but many of the continental works were translated and introduced into this country soon after their original publica tion. This was the case with the leading works of Luther, Melancthon, Calvin, and the other distinguished men who adorned the revival of religion and literature in Europe. Their writings spread with the rapidity of light itself, and produced all its cheering effects; dispersing darkness, correcting errors, and diffusing gladness and joy. Their disciples not only embraced their principles, but their spirit; and wherever they were found, reflected and multiplied the benefits which they received.

William Perkins is, properly, the first original writer in our language on the theory and practice of religion, in a regular systematic form. The Golden Chain, or the Description