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will or effort to forbear it, but to do it requires, very often, no will at all. We are carried by habit, as by a stream in swimming, if we make no resistance." Dr. Reid distinguishes these two species of habits; but in some passages he seems to confound them, for he classes them and instinct under the head of mechanical principles. Thus, he says, “Habit differs from instinct, not in its nature, but in its origin; the latter being natural, the former acquired. Both operate without will or intention, without thought, and therefore may be called mechanical principles." From both these passages it would seem that he meant habit in general; for the assertions are not qualified in any shape. If such was his opinion, his doctrine agrees exactly with that of Dr. Hartley, whose language affords no opportunity for being in doubt about his meaning. It appears, however, more philosophical to admit any possibly conceivable rapidity in our intellectual operations, than to suppose that any action performed with so much correctness, and with such rapidity, as violin and harpsichord playing in some instances, can be merely habitual, or automatic; that is, in every one of its minute subdivisions altogether unconnected with the exertions of the will. In habits of art, then, we deem it more correct to admit the interference of the will; but in the other class, which only, because they give not merely a facility, but also a proneness to act, ought to be called principles of action, we see no reason for admitting its interference in any respect.

(To be concluded in our next.)

GRADES OF COLOUR AMONGST THE INHABI. TANTS OF THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. THE extremes are to be found in the darkness of the Negro, and the fair complexion of the European.

A Mulatto is the offspring of a Black and White.

A Mustie is the offspring of a White and a Mulatto-and, of course, approaches one degree nearer in hue to the European colour.

A Fustie is the offspring of a Mustie and a White.

A Costie is the offspring of a Fustie and a White.

The offspring of a Costie and a White classes with the Whites as to colour.

A Sambo is the offspring of a Black and a Mulatto-of course, he retrogrades one degree towards the Negro.

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These distinctions, and the appellations which result from them, are deemed matters of no small importance amongst the West Indian descendants of Ham. The nearer each grade, and the individuals of each grade, approach in colour to the European complexion, the higher are they elevated in their own estimation. In Barbadoes the Costies and Fusties frequently assemble, to dance and feast at what they call Dignity Balls; and on these occasions they appear arrayed in as much finery as their means enable them to acquire. In the very midst of these recreations, they are as tenacious of their respective ranks as the nobles of France, or the pachas of Turkey. It is not, indeed, so difficult to ascertain their relative rights to such distinctions, even at first sight, as in the case of our European lords and ladies-for their titles are exhibited so plainly, in the very colour of their countenances, that he who runs may read. Hence, the gentleman-usher of the Dignity Ball will make the Fustie yield to the Costie, with "Madam, move lower down -this lady's dignity requires it :" and if an unfortunate Sambo or Negro should thrust his ebon visage into the room, there would be a universal cry of, "Out with the inferior fellow-out with the black intruder.”

O Vanity! vanity!-what class of human society dost thou not pervade? Descendants of one common parent, (Noah) why scorn ye one another? What are most of the struggles for idle distinctions, which the proudest inhabitants of civilized Europe are so prone to make, but a contest betwixt Costies and Fusties for a little temporary pre-eminence. Vanity of vanities, saith the preacher, all is vanity, and vexation of spirit."-The Guardian.

SLAVE TRADE AT THE ISLAND OF NIAS, NEAR SUMATRA.

IN 1820, in compliance with the repeated solicitations of many of the principal chiefs of the island of Nias, for the protection of the Company, Sir T. S. Raffles, then Lieu. tenant Governor of Bencoolen, deputed Mr. Prince, accompanied by the late Doctor Jack, to visit the island, and to form there, if deemed advisable, one or more settlements in situations, that might appear best adapted for the purpose. Their first object was to ascertain to whom the actual sovereignty of the island belonged, and whether there was any supreme authority competent to enter into terms with them for the whole; but they found that none such existed. To the king of Acheen the people of Nias acknowledged no subjection, and it did not appear

that his authority ever prevailed in the island. The whole country, it was found, had been immemorially divided among a number of independent chiefs, with whom it became necessary to form separate agreements. The northern districts as far south as a port called Gunong Lombo, had long considered themselves under the protection of the Company, and had even been in the habit of hoisting the English flag, and making appeals and references to Natalan acknowledgment which was paid in consequence of assistance which had been afforded them against Acheenese pirates, who infested their coasts, and at one time threatened a serious invasion.

Proceeding to visit the principal ports, Mr. Prince and Dr. Jack invited the chiefs connected with each to a conference, the result of all which was an agreement, under which British settlements were made at the ports of Tello Dalam and Lavago, and parties of Sepoys landed to secure the respectability of the flag.

The interest which the island of Nias then possessed, has in a great measure passed away with the cession of Bencoolen, and our other settlements on the west coast of Sumatra; but the report of the mission addressed to Sir T. S. Raffles, an ably written document, contains a minute account of the slave-trade, as carried on at Nias, which we deem of sufficient permanent interest to be laid before our readers. The evils of such a traffic are depicted in a manner well calculated to inspire distrust of the eulogiums which have been lavished on this commerce, as conducing highly to the happiness of all who are fortunate enough to become its victims.

"All the evils," says the Report, "arising from the imperfection of their civil institutions, have been aggravated and increased by the odious traffic in slaves; and as this subject is one of peculiar interest, we have been particular in obtaining the most minute information concerning its extent, causes, and origin. The greatest number of slaves has hitherto been exported from Lemembawa and Tello Dalam; those from the northern parts have been much fewer. It is by no means easy to get an exact account of their numbers; some endeavouring to extenuate and diminish it, and others equally desirous of magnifying it, according as they wished to give us a favourable impression of their conduct, or a high idea of their wealth; and the very nature of the trade, in some measure, precludes exactness. From a comparison, however, of these different accounts, checked by an estimate of the number of vessels 133.-VOL. XII.

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resorting thither, and the value of their imports, we are satisfied that the annual number exported has not fallen short of 1,500. According to some accounts, more than this have been carried from Lemembawa alone; but we think the above estimate will be found nearer the truth. They are purchased chiefly by Acheenese and Chinese vessels; the latter of which carry them to Penang and Batavia.

"The circumstances that attend this traffic, are no less revolting to humanity, than those which marked it on the coast of Africa. The unhappy victims, torn by violence from their friends and country, and delivered, pinioned hand and foot, to the dealers in human flesh, are kept bound during the whole course of the voyage-a precaution which is considered necessary to the safety of the crew. Instance have occurred where the captives have seized a moment of liberty, to snatch up the first weapon within their reach, stab all whom they encountered, and complete the scene by leaping overboard, and voluntarily seeking a watery death.

"In their own country, the Nias people rarely make use of rice as food, and are almost unacquainted with the use of salt. The sudden change of diet to which they are subjected on board ship, added to the confinement and dejection of mind, prove fatal to many. Of a cargo of thirty slaves, twenty have been known to perish before the conclusion of the voyage; and on a moderate calculation it may be estimated, that of the total number purchased, one-fourth never reach their destination, but fall victims to the various circumstances above mentioned.

"On the scenes of violence that take place in the country itself, in the search of victims, it will be needless to dwell; they can be better imagined than described. We shall relate one well-authenticated instance, as given by an eye-witness. A plan had been laid, to attack a single insulated house inhabited by a man, his wife, and children, and to seize the whole family. At the appointed hour, the house was surrounded; when the man no sooner discovered his situation, understood the purpose, and saw that there was no escape, than he locked himself into the inner apartment, drew his kris, killed first his wife and children, and then plunged it into his own breast, preferring death to a life of slavery.

"Such are the circumstances which our inquiries have brought to light. It is impossible to view a people possessed of such high qualities as we have described, subject to such evils, without feeling the strongest interest in their favour. They have appealed

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to Britain for protection, they have placed themselves under her flag, and now look to her for the restoration of peace and tranquillity to their distracted country. We cannot forbear recording the remarkable expression of one of the chiefs of Tello Dalam, on our threatening to leave the place in displeasure, if he failed to comply with a request we had made; he earnestly entreated us not to harbour such a thought for a moment. "Have patience with us," he said, "we are ignorant, uninstructed people, but we are desirous of obtaining the means of improvement: formerly we looked to the Malays and Acheenese, but they deceived us; if you should now desert us, from whom can we entertain any hope?"

"With a view to ascertain the best means of effecting the suppression of this nefarious commerce, we have been minute in our inquiries into the causes and origin of slavery in Pulo Nias, and the mode in which slaves are procured. Slavery is recognized by their laws and customs; it is the punishment ordained for certain crimes, and it is permitted as the ultimate resource in cases of debt. These customs have no doubt been much increased in severity, by the temptation of an external demand, and are often employed on very slight pretences; but they are quite inadequate to account for the great numbers actually exported. We have abundant proof that the greatest number are made slaves by open and actual violence. The rajahs had little hesitation of admitting the fact, but said, the system originated with foreigners, and that the source of the evil was without. In fact, the temptation of exorbitant gain, and the persuasion of the dealers who resort to the ports, prove too much for their selfdenial, and induce the more unprincipled among them to have recourse to every means of fraud, stratagem, or violence, to procure victims to their avarice.

"It must not be forgotten to record the few instances we have met with of chiefs whose virtue has been proof against temptation. Those of Roheeli and Gunong Lambo deserve in this respect the highest praise: not only have they absolutely prohibited the traffic in their own districts, but they even refuse to permit the transit of slaves from the interior, or the disposal of them in any way at their respective ports. We have had still greater reason to be satisfied with the conduct of the rajah of Lumembawa. On first opening the subject to him, and explaining our views and intentions, he expressed his own approbation, but wished to communicate with the chief of the interior, with whom he was connected, before

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entering into such important engagements. The answer proved unfavourable and the rajah was threatened with vengeance if he received us. After some consultation, however, he came on board, and acquainted us that he was determined to disregard the threats of the interior chief, and to enter into agreements with us. He professed himself ready to place himself under our authority, and to shut his port against all exportation of slaves, on condition of our affording protection and encouragement to its legitimate commerce. This was peculiarly gratifying, as Lomembawa has hitherto been the greatest slave-port on the island, and therefore the one where we expected to meet with the greatest difficulties. Indeed, it is but justice to the different chiefs to say, that, on full discussion, they entered into our views with regard to the slave trade with more cordiality than could have been expected.

"The measures therefore to be adopted for its suppression, appear to divide themselves into three branches: 1st, to check as much as possible the external demand; 2nd, To endeavour to soften and modify the severity of the native customs; and 3d, To provide the means of relief to debtors, and such as by existing usages are liable to the condition of slavery. The first depends upon our vigilance; and we have accordingly established such port regulations (they had formed settlements, and hoisted the British colours) and adopted such local arrangements as may facilitate this object, by obliging all vessels to take a pass, or port clearance, from the Company's representative at Tello Dalam or Lavago, and directing the confiscation of any vessel or boat in which slaves may be discovered.

"The second object will be of slower attainment; the change in their customs will be effected gradually and by persuasion, and several practices will fall into disuse of themselves, when the temptation which maintains them is withdrawn; and the chiefs have, on the whole, shewn so much willingness to attend to our suggestions, that we entertain hopes of great improvement, as our influence extends. We have declared, that no Malay or other foreign settler shall in future be permitted to avail himself of the native custom in regard to debts, either to recover such exorbitant interest, or to possess himself of the person of his debtor; and as they are the principal agents of the slave trade, and have most of the disposable capital in their hands, this prohibition will be attended with good effects. The domestic slaves of the Nias people themselves are considered as part of the family, and are

never parted with to foreigners, so that their condition is less a subject of commiseration.

"In reference to the third point, the means of affording relief to debtors, and enabling such persons to redeem themselves from slavery, we determined, on full consideration of the subject, to adopt the principles of the regulations framed by you, (Sir T. S. Raffles) for the reform of the Mengiring system at Bencoolen, which appear to us admirably adapted to the circumstances of this island, and to afford the utmost relief to the debtor, consistent with the claims of the creditor. Agreeably to these, any person who had fallen into the condition of a slave, or who was liable to it from inability to pay the amount of his debt, might redeem himself by entering into a voluntary contract with any person who should agree to pay the amount, to serve for a specified period of time, proportionate to the sum paid, such sum being considered as an advance, to be liquidated by a certain definite service to be rendered by the debtor. Thus, in lieu of absolute and unlimited slavery, will be substituted a system of free and voluntary contract, by which the debtor or slave enters at once on all the privileges of freedom, subject only to the fulfilment of an equitable contract, at the same time that the interest of the creditor is fully secured.

"A plan so obviously beneficial and equitable, could not fail to meet with the concurrence of the Nias chiefs, as it, in fact, gives as much security to the creditor as the present system of slavery, and is in an eminent degree favourable to the debtor. We required of the different rajahs the number of persons at present in a state of slavery on account of debt, in order to take measures for effecting their redemption on the above principles as soon as practicable, and the result of these inquiries strongly proves what we have above asserted, that the majority of the slaves are made so by violence, or on very unjust pretences, for we scarcely met with an instance in which they had a single slave on hand, whose redemption or sale they wished to effect. The answer was uniformly, "We have none, but if you wish to purchase, wait a few days, and you may have a hundred." On inquiring further how this was to be effected, we found that they had only to send notice to their agents among the interior rajahs, and any number were forthwith brought down bound. They probably sent word to catch so many slaves with as much indifference as they would

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have given an order to catch so many hogs for the same purpose. The fact is, the arrival of the trading boats which takes place at a certain season, is the signal for universal rapine and violence throughout the interior; hostile tribes endeavour to entrap stragglers belonging to their opponents, and the most frivolous pretences are resorted to, where violence is not deemed expedient.

"It is painful to dwell on this part of the picture, but we hope the time is not far distant, when, with the temptation from without, these scenes of violence will cease and be forgotten, tranquillity be restored, and industry, no longer repressed by insecurity and danger, awake to new life and to new energies. We think the measures now commenced, if followed up and extended, are adequate to effect these desirable objects, and we trust that the people of this interesting island will hereafter look to the period of their placing themselves under the fostering care of Britain, as the commencement of a better era and of happier times.

"The benefits arising from the abolition of the slave trade will not be confined to the relief of the unhappy victims alone, but will be much more extensively felt as the first step to the civilization of the country, and the removal of the greatest check to its industry. Independently of the habits of cruelty and rapine which it tends to infuse, the exorbitant profits it holds out, like those of gambling, create an aversion to the slower advantages of legitimate commerce and agricultural labour. In order to convey their produce to the sea-ports, the inhabitants of the interior are at present obliged to unite into parties of several hundreds, all completely armed and with their loads of rice on their backs, descend in order of battle to the shores to dispose of it -such is the general insecurity and distrust, that the husbandman goes armed to his labour in the fields, that they select the most difficult situations for their villages, and construct their houses with every precaution against surprises. Their laws have, from the temptation of the slave trade, acquired a savage and cruel character, that was probably originally unknown to them, and feuds have been perpetuated, that would probably otherwise have long since passed into oblivion.

It is unnecessary to point out the innumerable advantages that must arise from stopping the source from whence all these evils have flowed. It will require no special interposition of foreign influence; the course of improvement will be spontaneous

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and natural; confidence will gradually be restored; the operations of agriculture and commerce will no longer be interrupted, and British influence may be exerted with success, in reconciling feuds, and re-uniting the now divided and hostile tribes, into a community of interests, while those laws which derive their worst features from the facility of selling slaves, will by degrees fall into disuse, and give way to a milder code. Singapore Chronicle.

ON THE REPORTED INCREASE OF LUNACY AND IDIOTISM.

SOME time ago, and since I wrote my last letter for the Imperial Magazine, I have seen, in a London newspaper, remarks upon a letter addressed to Lord Robert Seymour, by Sir Andrew Halliday, the contents of which will to many be truly alarming. It gives a report, that the number of those who are at this time afflicted with mental disorder, or mental imbecility, is triple what it was twenty years ago; and if it were to triple every twenty years, in one hundred and fifty years, the number would greatly exceed what the whole population is at this time: but we need not entertain any such fears for posterity. On the contrary, we may confidently expect, that in future generations, the evils of mental affections will be greatly diminished in proportion to the population, for that wisdom and humanity, and a more correct knowledge of them, will disperse the cloud of superstitious ignorance, which at present hangs over the horizon of the united kingdom, on this very important subject; at any rate, that the united kingdom shall be equal to other nations of the earth in the treatment of mental complaints, which most assuredly it is not at present.

Extremes beget each other, and as we are certainly got to the extreme of bad treatment as a public measure, posterity may arrive at the opposite extreme of good treatment, for truth is great, and will in the end prevail. At present the obvious principles requiring the first attention, upon this very important subject, are over-ruled by the pride and influence of an extremely injudicious legislative measure, and popular prejudice, so that at this moment there is scarcely a magistrate or person of inquence to be found, who will not even take pains to recommend that very system which is most calculated to increase the evil they wish to diminish.

Some fifteen years ago, in a conversation with Lord Robert Seymour, and the right honourable George Rose, I did my best

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to recommend a better system for the cure of insanity; but their prejudices were much too strong for my feeble eloquence, and their zeal and great influence, without knowledge, did serious injury. Had they exerted themselves with equal zeal in a right path, thousands of pauper lunatics who are now languishing in hopeless insanity, a heavy burden to their respective parishes, might have been perfectly restored.

If "the march of intellect" has for the last twenty years been retrograde in what relates to mental diseases, I can have no doubt of its advancing in future; and the labours of Sir Andrew Halliday will in all probability very much contribute to it, by causing investigations: and therefore they are highly to be commended, notwithstanding that very erroneous conclusions may be drawn from that gentleman's report.

In the first place, the number he states of lunatics and idiots for the whole united kingdom, I suspect is greatly too small, and must suppose that many of the returns he has depended on, have only referred to paupers. Indeed, it is not to be expected that all the lunatics and idiots, of those who rank above paupers, would be returned by parish officers, if known by them. I know of four in one family, and three in another, but if called upon to make a return of all lunatics and idiots within my knowledge, I should not venture to include them. In the next place, the number of idiots returned is, I conceive, out of all proportion to the lunatics. Idiots, properly so called, are those only who were born such, who never had the mental faculties developed. Idiotism is absence of mind-lunacy is mental disorder or mental derangement; and though the long continuance of the latter will in many cases produce the appearance of the former, yet the distinction is important, and obvious to those conversant in such cases. Natural idiotism is, I am truly happy to say, not very common; none of these are married, and few become parents.

In the next place, Sir Andrew's report might lead us to think that fresh cases of insanity have alarmingly increased within the last twenty years; but this has not been proved, and, as far as my information goes, it is by no means the case. I am ready to admit, that the number of incurable pauper lunatics may be three times what it was twenty years ago, and that this is owing to a bad system of treatment prevailing to an alarming degree, and under